Coastal Fishing

KwaZulu-Natal's marine life is very rich and diverse making sea-fishing an enormously popular activity along the entire KwaZulu-Natal coastline. Popular destinations include Cape Vidal, Kosi Bay, Maphelana , St Lucia Estuary and Sodwana Bay. This warm water coastline offers launch sites for ski-boats at most beaches and shore anglers have the opportunity to catch a number of different game fish in waters that teem with the marine equivalent of the big five, including massive marlin and other game fish.

The fish size and bag limits that have been introduced still allow an angler to catch a diversity of fish whilst allowing the fish at least one season to breed (-> increase population) and minimising exploitation of any species. Sanctuary areas have been set aside inside marine reserves to act as a 'nursery' from which marine life can disperse and stock up other areas.

Inland Fishing

Fresh water fishing in KwaZulu-Natal can be divided into two broad categories both of which are regulated by KZN Wildlife.The first of these is flyfishing which normally involves brown and rainbow trout and which requires special rods, reels and artificial lures.

The periods in a year on which trout fishing can take place are regulated to protect breeding fish and the waters where these regulations apply are proclaimed.

Kamberg Nature Reserve is a very popular trout fishing venue for novices and more experienced anglers alike. An added attraction here is the trout hatchery. Kamberg, Royal Natal and Lotheni offer both river and dam fishing (dam fishing at Lotheni is reserved for the occupants of Sime's cottage only).

Injisuthi, Giants Castle, Cobham and Garden Castle offer river fishing. Highmoor is reserved primarily for stillwater trophy fishing and is closed intermittently for several months of the year to allow the fish to grow to a trophy size. This is arguably one of the most productive stillwater flyfishing venues in KZN and caters primarily for the more experienced angler in wilderness surroundings.

The trout fishing season in rivers is normally open from September to May, while dams are open to fishing throughout the year.The second category of fresh water fishing is referred to as coarse fishing and normally involves large mouth bass, carp and blue gill, all of which are introduced aliens and indigenous fish such as scalies, eels, tilapia and tiger fish.

Coarse fishing normally takes place at large dams such as Midmar and Chelmsford while tilapia and tiger fish are caught in the pans and rivers of Northern Zululand.

Fishing Permits:

Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife (Ezemvelo) has a contractual agreement for Compliance and Law enforcement as from Port Edward to Richard bay with the Department of Agriculture, Forest and Fisheries. It is DAFF that is responsible for ensuring that permits are available and these are issued through the Post Office. Ezemvelo does not sell permits anymore

The non-availability of permits also affects our compliance and law enforcement efforts. Ezemvelo recently had a meeting with Mr D Fredericks from DAFF who advised us that they had liaised with Government Printers to print permits were supposed to have them in mid-November but this has not happened.

All affected parties who may want further information relating to fishing permits may contact the following people:
Director DAFF: Sue 021 402 3911
Director Agriculture, Forest & Fisheries: Mr Stevens 021 402 3911

Legal status

Scheduled as "Protected game" in KwaZulu-Natal, not listed in the S A Red Data Book, nor on any CITES appendices.

Legal status

Unprotected outside of reserves in KwaZulu-Natal, and not listed in the SA Red Data Book nor any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

The water mongoose has been recorded throughout KwaZulu-Natal from the coast to 2700 m above sea level. Current status is fairly common and stable. Overall distributional range does not appear to have changed since last described (Pringle 1977; Rowe-Rowe 1978a). Museum records dated between 1933 and 1972 indicate as wide a distribution in earlier years. Specimens came from the following localities : Cathedral Peak, Dundee, Estcourt, Ingwavuma, Mount Edgecombe, Paulpietersburg, Pietermaritzburg, Renishaw, Richmond, and Underberg; and recently from Bellair, Cato Manor, and north of Albert Falls. See also Rowe-Rowe (1978a). The largest protected areas in which they occur are the Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park from Garden Castle to Cathedral Peak, and the St Lucia - Sodwana State Forest - Mkhuze complex. Other protected areas in which water mongooses have been recorded are Beachwood Mangroves, Bluff, Chelmsford, Coleford, Dlinza Forest, Enseleni, Entumeni Forest, False Bay, Himeville, Hluhluwe, Ithala, Karkloof, Kenneth Stainbank, Krantzkloof, Lake Eteza, Maphelana, Midmar, Mkhuze, Mount Currie, Ndumo, North Park, Oribi Gorge, Queen Elizabeth Park, Richards Bay, Royal Natal National Park, Soada Forest, Spioenkop, The Swamp, Umfolozi, Umhlanga Lagoon, Umlalazi, Umtamvuna, Umvoti Vlei, Vernon Crookes, and Vryheid.

Living requirements

Preferred habitats are shallow streams, river banks, vleis, and lake and impoundment shores, wherever there is good cover. Home ranges at Vernon Crookes NR were 150 - 200 ha, where density was estimated at 1,8/km² (Maddock 1988). In freshwater habitats crabs are the most important item in the diet, supplemented by small mammals, birds, and frogs (Maddock 1988; Rowe-Rowe 1977a, 1978a). At Lake St Lucia crabs were also most important, and other major foods were penaeid prawns, frogs, and fish (Whitfield & Blaber 1980).

Social organisation

Adult water mongooses are generally solitary. Occasionally two are seen together.

Population dynamics

Litters of up to three, most frequently two, young are born during spring or early summer. The eyes open at 11 days and the young are weaned by about 36 days (Baker & Meester 1986). Deciduous canine teeth are shed at ca 8 months, after the permanent canines have erupted and grown. Asymptotic mass is reached at 10 months (Rowe-Rowe 1978a). Adult sex ratio is 1 : 1.

Threats

No major threats were identified. As more than 50 % of the diet consists of aquatic prey, the water mongoose is vulnerable to the effects of water pollution and silting.

Human importance

There are no known uses. Domestic ducks or poultry are occasionally killed.

Legal status

Unprotected outside reserves in KwaZulu-Natal, and not listed in the SA Red Data Book nor any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Yellow mongoose occur in north-western KwaZulu-Natal, mainly in the Drier upland grasslands bioclimatic region, and marginally in Moist upland grasslands. Where present they are fairly common and numbers appear to be stable. Current distributional range is similar to what was previously recorded (Pringle 1977; Rowe-Rowe 1978a). Museum specimens collected between 1962 and 1972 originate from Babanango, Bergville, Colenso, Elandslaagte, Greytown, Hlobane, and Kambula (near Vryheid), and recently (1991) from Chelmsford NR. See also Rowe-Rowe (1978a) for other material records. Protected areas in which C. penicillata has recently been recorded are Chelmsford, Moor Park-Wagendrift, Spioenkop, and Vryheid.

Living requirements

Ideal habitat is open grassland on sandy soil. Shelter is taken in warrens, sometimes with numerous entrances, excavated by the mongooses themselves. In north-west KwaZulu-Natal, where the yellow mongoose occurs mainly on farms, the diet consists primarily of insects, followed by plant food e.g. ground nuts, beans, maize. Other invertebrates and small vertebrates are also eaten (Rowe-Rowe 1978a).

Social organisation

Burrows may be occupied by a single pair, or an inter-connected warren system may be occupied by a colony of eight to ten mongoose (Rautenbach 1982). Adults usually forage singly, however, or occasionally in twos (Rowe-Rowe 1978a).

Population dynamics

Young are born mainly during spring. Most litters consist of two. Gestation is ca 55 days (Lynch 1983; Rowe-Rowe 1978a). Adult sex ratio is 1 : 1.

Threats

No threats have been identified.

Human importance

There are no records of use and no problems have been reported. Isolated cases of rabies have been confirmed.

Legal status

Unprotected outside of reserves in KwaZulu-Natal, and not listed in the SA Red Data Book nor any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

The slender mongoose occurs throughout most of eastern KwaZulu-Natal, chiefly in the bioclimatic regions Coast lowlands, Bushveld, and Coast hinterland, where it is generally common, and marginally in Moist upland and Mistbelt. It is absent from almost the entire Drier upland grassland region, where Cynictis penicillata is common. Current distributional range is similar to those described by Pringle (1977) and Rowe-Rowe (1978a). There is no evidence of any decline in numbers, therefore status is considered secure and stable. Specimens in museums, collected between 1951 and 1976, originate from Baynesfield, Bothas Hill, Colenso, Henley Dam, Highflats, Howick, Manaba, Mkhuze GR, Mooi River, Ngoya, Oribi Gorge, Pietermaritzburg, Queen Elizabeth Park, Richmond, Tugela Bridge, Ubombo, Umfolozi GR, and Umhlanga Rocks. Recent specimens are from Albert Falls and Spioenkop NR.

G. sanguinea has been recorded from 33 KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Service protected areas : Beachwood Mangroves, Blinkwater, Dlinza Forest, Doreen Clark, Enseleni, Entumeni Forest, False Bay, Harold Johnson, Hluhluwe, Ithala, Karkloof, Kenneth Stainbank, Krantzkloof, Lake Eteza, Midmar, Mkhuze, Ndumo GR, North Park, Oribi Gorge, Queen Elizabeth Park, Richards Bay, Sodwana Bay, Sodwana State Forest, Spioenkop, St Lucia, The Swamp, Umfolozi, Umhlanga Lagoon, Umtamvuna, Umvoti Vlei, Vernon Crookes, Vryheid, and Weenen.

Living requirements

Slender mongoose favour bushveld, forest, and riverine vegetation. At Vernon Crookes NR, Maddock (1988) found that sheltering places were mainly in forest and less frequently forest margin or burrows in grassland. The diet consists mainly of small mammals and insects, supplemented by other small vertebrates and invertebrates. Home range areas were 50 - 100 ha, and density at Vernon Crookes NR was estimated at 7,3/km² (Maddock 1988).

Social organisation

G. sanguinea has been classified as a solitary species, seldom being recorded in groups of two or three (Maddock 1988; Maddock & Perrin in press). Home ranges overlap, and it is not known whether there is territorial defence.

Population dynamics

Parturition takes place during spring or early summer. Most litters consist of two (Skinner & Smithers 1990). Adult sex ratio is 1 : 1. No other details are known.

Threats

Many are killed owing to their reputation as poultry thieves.

Human importance

Cunningham & Zondi (1991) listed the slender mongoose as an animal used in traditional medicine. Individuals occasionally kill young domestic poultry or eat eggs.

THE CARNIVORES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE

Legal status

Unprotected outside of reserves in KwaZulu-Natal, and not listed in the SA Red Data Book nor any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

G. genetta appears to be confined to the Drier upland grassland bioclimatic region of north-western KwaZulu-Natal. It was first recorded in KwaZulu-Natal (near Bergville) by Pringle (1974), and currently occurs more widely than indicated by Pringle (1977). Chelmsford and Royal Natal National Park are the only two protected areas from which it has been recorded. Recent museum specimens are from Chelmsford (1990-91).

Living requirements

Open, sparsely wooded, drier grassland habitats are preferred (Rautenbach 1982; Skinner & Smithers 1990). Area requirements in east Africa were estimated at 1/70 to 1/200 ha (Hendrichs 1972; Waser 1980). The diet consists of insects, other invertebrates, mice, birds, and reptiles (Skinner & Smithers 1990; Stuart 1981).

Social organisation

Adults are solitary. Offspring apparently leave the adult female after weaning (Rautenbach 1982).

Population dynamics

Births have been recorded during spring and summer (Rautenbach 1982; Stuart 1981). Litters of two to four are born after a gestation of 70 - 77 days (Volf 1959). The eyes open at ca. eight days, canine teeth erupt at four weeks, and the young are weaned at nine weeks. The sex ratio of adults collected is 1 : 1 (Lynch 1983; Rautenbach 1982; Stuart 1981). Longevity is not known.

Threats

No threats to G. genetta have been identified in KwaZulu-Natal.

Human importance

Genets are used in tribal medicine (Cunningham & Zondi 1991; see details under G. tigrina) and are eaten by some rural people. As they kill poultry they are regarded as nuisance animals by some.

THE CARNIVORES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 0-620-16629-0

Legal status

Categorised as "Protected game" in KwaZulu-Natal, listed as "Rare" in the S A Red Data Book, and not listed on any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Hippos are limited to the low-lying areas of north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal, where approximately 1650 occur in eight separate populations. The largest populations are at Ndumo Game Reserve and the Pongola River floodplain outside of the reserve (340 animals), Kosi Lakes system (65), Lake Sibayi (150), and the Mkhuze-St Lucia system (1100). These all represent original populations. The animals in the Hluhluwe River and dam were introduced from St Lucia. During the nineteenth century hippos were present in suitable rivers along the entire KwaZulu-Natal coast, extending upstream where water conditions were suitable (du Plessis 1969; NPB unpubl. records).

Living requirements

R.H. Taylor (NPB, in litt.) summarises the living requirements as follows:- Hippos require permanent water with a depth of about 1,5 m for lying-up during the day. If the water is saline, as is the case at St Lucia, they need access to fresh drinking water daily. Hippos select grazing areas which contain a high proportion of palatable grasses. Generally such areas are about 2,5 km from the lying-up sites, but under conditions of stress, hippos will move up to 10 km from water every night to feed. A detailed study on food preferences was undertaken at Ndumo Game Reserve (Scotcher 1974), and population dynamics and habitat preferences were studied at St Lucia(Taylor 1980).

Social organisation

The social organisation in the water during the day differs from that on the land at night. In the water they are highly social, forming groups with an average size of about 12, but which at times may exceed 100 animals,comprising roughly even numbers of both sexes. The smaller groups have a distinct hierarchy and the dominant animal is usually male (the structure of the larger groups is not understood). The individual composition of a group is not fixed but may be a conglomeration of several sub-groups. It appears that some animals will move freely from one group to another (these may be sub-groups of a larger aggregation). The dominant animal does not move which may indicate territoriality (R.H. Taylor, in litt.). On the land hippos are solitary. They have preferred grazing areas which are used regularly, and use a system of paths for access to these areas. The paths are marked by spreading urine and faeces with their tails, but the purpose of this marking is not understood (R.H. Taylor, in litt.).

Population dynamics

In KwaZulu-Natal hippos are not seasonal breeders, although a peak in births occurs during May and June. Gestation is 8 months and age at first parturition is usually 7 years, although females can be sexually mature at 3 years (Mentis 1972), and males at 6 -8 years. The calving interval is 3 years, lactation lasts 18 months and females have a potential lifespan of 35 years. Theoretical population increase under ideal conditions is 8 % per annum.

Threats

Hippos are not compatible with agriculture, therefore they are limited mainly to protected areas, and are generally not tolerated outside of these areas. Populations in KwaZulu-Natal which come under threat from human development and increasing number of humans are those of the Pongola River floodplain, Kosi Lakes system, and Lake Sibayi.

Human importance

Hippos are not hunted on private land in KwaZulu-Natal, and very few are captured and sold from protected areas. Hippos are responsible for extensive crop damage in agricultural areas, grazing and trampling maize, millet, and young sugar cane. They can be responsible for death or serious injury to pedestrians using the same paths, unintentionally walking into people and biting them (Taylor, in litt.).

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2


HIPPOPOTAMUS SPOOR

Legal status

Scheduled as "Protected game" in KwaZulu-Natal, and listed as "Vulnerable" in the S A Red Data Book, but not listed on any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Sable did not formerly occur in KwaZulu-Natal. In 1981 ten were introduced to Mkuze Falls Game Ranch south of Magudu. Numbers declined and the remaining two were sold in 1990. In 1986 some were introduced to Karkloof Falls Nature Reserve near Pietermaritzburg where there are currently 20 which receive supplementary food.

Living requirements

Sable favour open savanna woodland, with adjacent vleis or grassy drainage lines. They feed on perennial grasses which are 0,6 to 1,6 m high, being selective for species and plant part (Carr 1986, Grobler 1981). In ideal habitat they occur at densities of 1/25 ha. They are dependent on permanent drinking water.

Social organisation

Socially dominant males are territorial and may occur singly or together with adult females and young (Grobler1974). Adult females and young remain together throughout the year in herds of up to 20 to 30. Non-territorial males, up to the age of five or six years, remain in bachelor groups (Carr 1986). Territory sizes are 25 to 40 ha, and nursery herds of 10 to 20 animals have home ranges of 200 to 500 ha (Carr 1986).

Population dynamics

Breeding is seasonal in Northern Province- most births occurring between January and March. Age at first parturition is 3 years, and gestation is 9 months. A female can be expected to produce one calf per year until the age of 10 to 12 years (Carr 1986, Grobler 1974)

Threats

None in KwaZulu-Natal.

Human importance

The species has not been used in KwaZulu-Natal and has not been responsible for any problems.

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2



SABLE ANTELOPE SPOOR

Legal status

Unprotected outside or reserves in KwaZulu-Natal, not listed in the SA Red Data Book, nor on any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Striped polecats were recorded from all bioclimatic regions, but only marginally in Mistbelt, Coast hinterland, and Montane. Although not present in high numbers they may occur as widely in KwaZulu-Natal as formerly indicated by Rowe-Rowe (1978a). Presence was reported from 18 protected areas : Chelmsford, Cobham, Coleford, Enseleni, Garden Castle, Giant's Castle, Kamberg, Lotheni, Midmar, Mkhomazi, Mkhuze, Monk's Cowl, Mount Currie, Ndumo, Royal Natal National Park, Sodwana State Forest, Spioenkop, and Umfolozi. Specimens in museums, collected between 1929 and 1975, originate from Hillary, Ingwavuma, Manaba, Mbazwana, Mkhuze Game Reserve, Otobothini, and Winterton. Between 1972 and 1977 material was obtained from 14 localities throughout KwaZulu-Natal (Rowe-Rowe 1978a). The only recent (1990) specimen was collected at Chelmsford NR.

Living requirements

Vegetation types in which they have been recorded are savanna, closed woodland, and open grassland. Area requirements are not known. In Serengeti National Park, Hendrichs (1972) estimated density at 1/5 - 10 km². The diet consists chiefly of insects and mice, supplemented by various other small animal prey, e.g. spiders, reptiles, amphibians, birds and eggs (Rowe-Rowe 1978b). Shelter is taken during daylight in burrows (usually made by other animals), hollow logs, or other secluded places.

Social organisation

Striped polecats are generally solitary. Groups, which are very seldom seen, usually comprise an adult female and young. Adult males are intolerant of each other and adult males and females occur together only at the time of mating (Rowe-Rowe 1978a).

Population dynamics

Between one and three young are born during spring or summer, after a gestation of 36 days (Rowe-Rowe 1978c). Development is similar to that of the striped weasel : the eyes open at ca 40 days, but the young start to eat solid food about a week prior to this when their canine teeth erupt. At about nine weeks the young are able to kill mice, and reach full adult size at about 20 weeks (Rowe-Rowe 1978c). A female usually has one litter per season, but if the litter dies at an early stage she may mate again. Longevity is estimated at roughly 4 or 5 years.

Threats

The increasing human population in rural areas and concomitant increase in number of dogs threaten the polecat's existence in some areas. Some are trapped and killed for damage done to poultry. An individual is occasionally responsible for its own death by standing its ground and displaying in defence (Rowe-Rowe 1978a) at an approaching vehicle.

Human importance

Young poultry is sometimes killed or eggs are eaten.

THE CARNIVORES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 0-620-16629-0


STRIPED POLECAT

Legal status

Scheduled as "Protected game" in KwaZulu-Natal. Not listed in the S A Red Data Book nor on any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Waterbuck formerly occurred in North-eastern KwaZulu-Natal, including the old Pongola Game Reserve. The southernmost limit of their range appears to have been the Ntambanana area, south of Umfolozi Game Reserve (du Plessis 1969, NPB unpubl. records). The original population appears to have occurred mainly in the riverine and lowland Bushveld bioclimatic region, at elevations between 100 and 200 m. There are currently about 1200 in protected areas : Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park (580), Eastern Shores (300) and Western Shores of St Lucia (30), Mkhuze (10), Sodwana State Forest (60), Ithala (300), Spioenkop (10), and Tembe. About 100 occur in small populations on five separate game ranches. The current estimate for protected areas is 50 % higher than that made four years ago (Rowe-Rowe 1991), representing a possible population growth of 10 % per annum.

In 1966 the only population of waterbuck in KwaZulu-Natal was in the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park (Bourquin 1966). Between 1967 and 1980 re-introductions to the other protected areas took place. Although additional populations were established, numbers declined. In 1965 Bourquin (1966) estimated 2500 in Umfolozi and 200 in Hluhluwe. By 1971 the population in Umfolozi had dropped to 1400 (Bourquin, Vincent & Hitchins 1971), 800 in 1976 (Melton 1978), and 300 in 1989 (NPB Conservation Division Yearbook 1988-89). Melton (1978) attributed the decline to habitat change caused by increasing nyala and impala populations.

Living requirements

Melton (1978) concluded that the waterbuck's favoured habitat was good quality, long grass, with a dense woody component, within 2 km of permanent water. Preferred terrain is flat to gently undulating. The waterbuck is a grazer, being selective for certain grass species, and taking a small amount of browse seasonally. Preferred grasses are Panicum maximum, P. coloratum, Themeda triandra, and Eragrostis superba (Melton 1978). Long grass is essential for waterbuck, as they are physically incapable of getting their mouths close enough to the ground to feed on short grass. If antelope such as nyala and impala occur in high numbers, they keep the grass short and out-complete waterbuck (Melton 1978). In 1976 the ecological density of waterbuck in Umfolozi was 1/40 ha (Melton 1978): this is the only indication of area requirements in KwaZulu-Natal.

Social organisation

Waterbuck occur either singly or in small herds, of typically 4 - 7 animals, with a maximum of about 30 (Melton 1978). Melton (1978) recognised four groupings : single territorial males, breeding herds made up of an adult male, adult females and young; bachelor herds; and all-female herds. Adult males which become territorial maintain their territories (mean 66 ha) throughout the year, near permanent water. Mean home range sizes were 440 ha for a female herd and 230 ha for a bachelor herd (Melton 1978).

Population dynamics

In Umfolozi the adult male : female sex ratio was roughly 1 : 2. Melton (1978) found that breeding was not strictly seasonal : calves were born from December to July, with a peak in February and March. Gestation is believed to be approximately 8 or 9 months, and age at first parturition 2 years or older (Mentis 1972). Females can be expected to produce one calf per year until the age of at least 10 years, and potential lifespan is about 11 years (Melton 1978). Calf survival in Umfolozi GR was low. Melton (1978) recorded 14 - 19 calves/100 females, thus juveniles (those less than 1 year old) comprised 9 to 12 % of the population. The proximate cause of high mortality among young animals was found to be severe tick infestations, but Melton (1978) argued that the ultimate cause was interspecific competition.

Threats

The greatest threat to waterbuck in KwaZulu-Natal is that the potential for populations to expand is limited. They have specialised habitat requirements and are sensitive to competition from other herbivores.

Human importance

Virtually no waterbuck hunting is done currently.

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Unprotected outside of reserves in KwaZulu-Natal, not listed in the SA Red Data Book, and listed on Appendix II of CITES.

Distribution and status

The spotted-necked otter is confined mainly to the Montane bioclimatic region, and has been recorded at a few localities in the Highland, Mistbelt, and Moist upland regions. The status is rare to very rare. The overall distributional range is not as wide as previously indicated (Pringle 1977, Rowe-Rowe 1978a). In the Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park spotted-necked otters have been recorded in the contiguous protected areas from Garden Castle to Royal Natal (except Highmoor). Other protected areas from which they have been reported are, Coleford, Himeville, The Swamp, Umvoti Vlei, Vryheid, and Wagendrift. Very few records of former distribution are available: one from Port Natal in 1862 (Meester et al. 1986) and one from Curry's Post area in 1903 (NPB unpubl. records). Museum specimens originate from Underberg and Wagendrift Dam (1978).

Living requirements

L. maculicollis requires unsilted, unpolluted water in which fish, crabs, and frogs occur. Spotted-necked otters appear to favour deeper water than do clawless otters. An essential component of the habitat is adequate riparian vegetation (long grass, reeds, bushes) to provide cover during periods of inactivity (Rowe-Rowe 1992), as are holes or other shelters. Favoured habitats appear to be rivers and impoundments in the Highland, Moist upland, and Mistbelt regions. Where large populations of small freshwater fish are present, e.g. in the lakes and rivers of central and east Africa this otter is primarily piscivorous (Lejeune 1990). In KwaZulu-Natal the diet consists of approximately equal amounts of crabs and fish (ca 40 % each) followed by frogs (20 %) (Rowe-Rowe 1977a). In ideal habitat (central and east Africa) densities of 1 adult/0,5 - 1 km of lake shore have been recorded (Kruuk & Goudswaard 1990; Lejeune & Frank 1990). A preliminary estimate of density in KwaZulu-Natal is 1 adult/6-11 km of stream (Rowe-Rowe 1992).

Social organisation

Groups of up to five spotted-necked otters have been recorded in KwaZulu-Natal, with single animals being most-frequently seen. In more suitable habitat (Lake Victoria) groups are larger : mean three, maximum 10 to 20 (Kruuk & Goudswaard 1990).

Population dynamics

Very little information is available on reproduction. Gestation is assumed to be similar to that of most freshwater otters, namely 60 - 63 days. Mean litter size is not known, but adults with one or two young have been seen (Rowe-Rowe 1978a).

Threats

Threats to the existence of spotted-necked otters are similar to those listed for the clawless otter

Human importance

Otters are used in traditional medicine (Cunningham & Zondi 1991). Anglers often express concern regarding the possible impact of otters on sport-fish populations. Although fish is an important item in the spotted-necked otter's diet, the effect on fish populations is believed to be negligible because the otter is rare to very rare. Furthermore mainly small fish are eaten, and as angling waters in KwaZulu-Natal are often overstocked with introduced species, this otter may serve as a complement to fisheries management (Rowe-Rowe 1978a; 1985)

THE CARNIVORES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE

ISBN 0-620-16629-0

Legal status

Categorised as "Specially protected" in KwaZulu-Natal and listed as "Endangered" in the SA Red Data Book. Not listed on any CITES appendices

Distribution and status

Records of former distribution (1830 - 1890) suggest that wild dogs possibly occurred throughout KwaZulu-Natal, but mainly in Zululand (Pringle 1977, NPB unpubl. records). By 1920 they were still present around Lake St Lucia and in Umfolozi Game Reserve, while last recorded from near the Drakensberg between 1918 and 1924. Pringle (1977) gave 1930 as the date of probable extirpation. In 1980 and 1981 twenty-two were re-established in Hluhluwe GR. By 1989 there appeared to be two packs in the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park (30 - 45 animals altogether). Home ranges of the packs in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi extend beyond the game reserve boundaries. Additional small parks have formed north and south of the protected area. The only two museum specimens were collected in 1928: localities Umfolozi River and White Umfolozi.

Living requirements

Wild dogs occur in open savanna, areas of moderately dense bush, and open grassland (Ginsberg & Macdonald 1990), avoiding areas with thick underbush or tall grass (Skinner & Smithers 1990). Presence is more strictly governed by the availability of prey (Skinner & Smithers 1990). The diet varies from one area to another, depending on the most abundant bovids (Ginsberg & Macdonald 1990); the most commonly recorded prey in the Kruger National Park being impala (Maddock 1989). They are not dependent on drinking water (Skinner & Smithers 1990). Area requirements range from 750 km²/pack in the Kruger National Park to 1500 km² in Tanzania (Maddock 1989; Ginsberg & Macdonald 1990).

Social organisation

Wild dogs live in packs comprising several related adult males and one or more related adult females originating from a different pack (Ginsberg & Macdonald 1990). Pack sizes recorded in the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park range from 4 - 29, most frequently 9 - 14 (T. Sandwith, NPB, in litt.). Each pack has a dominant female, which is usually the only bitch to successfully raise pups. This female remains at the den with the pups, being fed on regurgitations from the other pack members (Ginsberg & Macdonald 1990). Pack home ranges of between 500 and 1500 km² have been recorded, with up to 50 - 80 % home range overlap (Ginsberg & Macdonald 1990).

Population dynamics

In the Kruger National Park breeding is seasonal : mating takes place during April and May, and parturition occurs during June to August after a gestation of 69 - 73 days. Litter sizes range from 2 - 19, most frequently 7 - 10. Lactation lasts 10 weeks. Although females are physically sexually mature at 18 months, breeding is suppressed by the dominant female (Ginsberg & Macdonald 1990). Pup-survival rate is 20 - 50 % (Maddock 1989). No data were found on longevity.

Threats

There is little hope for the expansion of the wild dog population in KwaZulu-Natal, owing to the large home range requirements of each pack, relatively small protected areas, and the incompatibility of wild dogs with livestock farming. Wild dogs appear to be susceptible to diseases, mainly canine distemper, rabies, and anthrax (Ginsberg & Macdonald 1990). Furthermore, wild dogs may be prone to low levels of genetic heterozygosity owing to their particular social organisation: the fewer the number of packs, the smaller the gene pool, which may make them more vulnerable to the effects of diseases and parasites (Ginsberg & Macdonald 1990).

Human importance

Wild dogs which emanate from Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park are responsible for killing livestock (goats, calves), but damage is sporadic.

THE CARNIVORES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 0-620-16629-0


WILD DOG SPOOR

Legal status

Scheduled as "Protected game" in KwaZulu-Natal, listed as "Vulnerable" in the S A Red Data Book, and not on any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

In former times suni were probably fairly widely distributed in wooded habitats over an area of about 9000 km², extending from the Mozambique border, southwards and east of the Lebombo Mountains, to St Lucia Estuary (Lawson 1986). Current populations lie within this range, but are small and isolated. They are present in sub-arid habitats in the Bushveld bioclimatic regions, at elevations between 40 and 100 m above sea level. The total number of suni in KwaZulu-Natal is probably less than 1000. The largest population of about 500 is in Tembe Elephant Reserve. Other protected areas which contain sunis are Mkhuze (ca 230), False Bay Park, and Ndumo. Although sunis were reported from 14 private properties (NPB records), Lawson (1986) confirmed their presence on only five game ranches, viz Bona Manzi, Dinizulu, Indlazi, Insleep, and Zinave.

.

Living requirements

Suni occur in dry closed woodland, bushland, and thicket on sand or clay soils (P.S. Goodman, NPB, in litt.). The preferred habitat is dense woody vegetation, with a high stem density in the shrub layer, and sparse ground cover (Lawson 1986). The main source of food is fallen leaves. Flowers and fruits are eaten when available. They do not depend on permanent surface water for drinking (Lawson 1986). In ideal habitat suni occur at densities 1/1 ha to 1/3 ha (Tembe Elephant Reserve), and in sub-optimal habitat (False Bay Park) density is ca 1/14 ha (Lawson 1986).

Social organisation

Both adult male and female suni are territorial. Mated pairs occupy the same home range (= territory), and exclude other adults (Lawson 1986). In ideal habitat home ranges are 1 - 4 ha, and in sub-optimal areas they are 4 - 10 ha (Lawson 1986). Suni generally occur singly. Lawson (1986) reported that 77 % of animals seen were single adult males or females, and 12 % were adult pairs. Occasionally adult females are recorded with young, or a pair plus young is seen.

Population dynamics

The adult male : female sex ratio has been reported as 1 : 1,5 (Lawson 1986). Age at first parturition is 19 or 20 months, and the calving interval has been established at 8 to 9 months. Gestation is not known, but Lawson (1986) reported post-partum oestrus, therefore gestation could be about 7 months. Potential lifespan is not known. If similar to that of other neotragines, then it may be about 8 years.

Threats

The major factor responsible for decline in suni numbers appears to have been loss of habitat, and hunting, both by humans and uncontrolled dogs (Lawson 1986). The threat of habitat loss on private land still exists if the present form of land use on existing game ranches is changed. With increasing rural human populations and the ever increasing number of dogs, suni come under continual pressure. In both protected areas and on private land, Lawson (1986) identified another threat, viz increasing nyala numbers. Where nyala numbers have increased, density of the shrub layer (cover) decreased. This was identified as a critical factor for suni.

Human importance

Very few sunis are hunted legally: about 15 per annum, mainly by foreign clients.

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Categorised as 'Protected Game' in KwaZulu-Natal. Listed as 'Lower Risk, Conservation Dependent' in the 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals, and the South African population is included in Appendix II of CITES.

Distribution and status

In KwaZulu-Natal the population of approximately 1640 in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park represents original stock. White rhino have been introduced to nine other game reserves in the province, and to a number of private properties (currently present on 20). The total number in KwaZulu-Natal is about 2000. Protected areas in which white rhino have been introduced and currently occur(1997) are Mkhuze (105), Ithala (100), Ndumo (50), Weenen (38), Spioenkop (20), Pongola Poort(18) and Tembe Elephant Reserve (25). There are a number of small populations on game ranches (totalling 213 on 20 ranches in 1999), mainly in north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal, but numbers change frequently depending on purchases or animals hunted. Some of the protected areas to which they have been introduced are considered marginal regarding habitat suitability or size, as is the case on some of the private properties. Du Plessis (1969) stated that white rhino formerly occurred only in Zululand, although the past-distribution map which he produced indicates the whole of KwaZulu-Natal. Other accounts from the literature suggest that they occurred north of the Thukela River, including the old Pongola Game Reserve, on the northern border of KwaZulu-Natal (NPB unpubl. records).

Living requirements

Preferred habitats are open grassland or open woodland, on flat to gently undulating terrain, in sweet or mixed veld areas. White rhino are grazers, preferring fairly short palatable grasses, but they also eat long grass, particularly during winter. Density can be as high as 1/40 ha. Area requirements are typically 1/100 - 300 ha, depending on habitat (P.M. Brooks, NPB, in litt.). The major limiting factors are availability of palatable grasses, shade, drinking water, and sufficient space. Mud wallows are also desirable.

Social organisation

Dominant breeding males are territorial, defending territories of 100 - 300 ha against other dominant breeding males. Adult females have overlapping home ranges of 600 - 2000 ha. Young remain with their mothers for up to two years after the birth of the next calf. Loose associations of sub-adult and subordinate adult males are formed, as are groups of females and their young. Groups usually consist of four to six animals, occasionally larger, up to 15 (Owen-Smith 1973).

Population dynamics

Breeding is not seasonal, but a peak in births has been recorded during autumn in Umfolozi Game Reserve (Owen-Smith 1973). Females usually calve for the first time at the age of six or seven years, and have a calving interval of about 22 months (Owen-Smith 1973) . Gestation lasts 16 months. Population incremental rate can be as high as 10 % per annum. The reproductive lifespan is in excess of 36 years (Mentis 1972). The sex ratio in unconfined populations has been recorded as 1 : 1. In the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park a rough breakdown of the population is 75 % adults (over 3 years old), 15 % sub-adults (1 - 3 years old), and 10 % juveniles (Brooks, in litt.).

Threats

There are no serious threats to the white rhino populations in KwaZulu-Natal's larger, suitable, protected areas. On some of the private properties rhino populations are too small to be viable; population increase is limited by the size of the property or structure of the population (Buys 1988).

Human importance

During the 1970s and early 1980s many white rhino were sold to game ranchers in KwaZulu-Natal. Most of these rhino have been shot by foreign hunters (Buys 1988). Current commercial use of white rhinos is not as great as it was during the years referred to above, as far fewer animals are available for sale to ranchers, and the KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Service has altered its policy regarding the disposal of surplus animals. Rhino horn is no longer sold. As rhino populations in protected areas, and on almost all private properties, are adequately contained by suitable fences, problems caused by white rhinos are minimal.

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WHITE RHINOCEROS SPOOR

Legal status

Unprotected outside of reserves in KwaZulu-Natal, listed as "Rare" in the SA Red Data Book, and not listed on any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Striped weasels were recorded mainly from the midland and highland moist grasslands of southern KwaZulu-Natal, and less frequently in coastal grassland. Status is very rare and populations appear to be declining (Cunningham & Zondi 1991; Rowe-Rowe 1990b). Protected areas from which they have been recorded are Cathedral Peak, Garden Castle, Giant's Castle, Kamberg, Lotheni, Midmar, Mount Currie, Queen Elizabeth Park, Royal Natal National Park, Umvoti Vlei, and Vernon Crookes.

Current distributional range is not as extensive as previously recorded (Pringle 1977; Rowe-Rowe 1978a). Specimens in museums, collected in KwaZulu-Natal between 1915 and 1977, originate from Bellair (Durban), Giant's Castle GR, Hilton, Pietermaritzburg, Richmond, Seven Oaks, Ubombo, Underberg, World's View, and Zwartkop. See also material records in Rowe-Rowe (1978a).

Living requirements

Suitable habitat in KwaZulu-Natal appears to be moist grassland where flourishing populations of small rodents (their main food) are present (Rowe-Rowe 1978a; 1990b). The diet consists almost exclusively of small rodents, with moles, shrews, and young birds on the ground occasionally taken (Rowe 1978a; b). The weasel is regarded as a specialist predator on small mammals. Soil texture may be important as weasels often excavate their own burrows (Rowe-Rowe 1978a). No information on area requirements or densities is available.

Social organisation

Weasels are generally solitary (64 % of observations), or occur in small groups of two to four, mainly as family parties (Rowe-Rowe 1978a). Adult males and females lived together amicably in captivity, but adult males fought with each other at every encounter (Rowe-Rowe 1978a), suggesting that a form of territoriality may exist.

Population dynamics

Litters of up to three are born during spring and summer after a gestation of 32 days (Rowe-Rowe 1978c). At about 35 days canine teeth erupt in the blind young, which then begin to eat solid food and continue to suckle until after the eyes open at ca 52 days. At about 13 weeks the young can kill on their own, and are full grown at 20 weeks (Rowe-Rowe 1978c). One litter per season is normal, but if all of the young die at an early age the female may mate again and have a second litter. Longevity is roughly 4 to 6 years.

Threats

Being a specialist feeder on small mammals, occurring at low population density, and the apparent association with habitats which are being altered or lost, places the future of the weasel at risk. Large tracts of grassland have been ploughed to grow crops, while each year more moist grassland is converted to commercial timber plantations. Overgrazing causes declines in small mammal prey species in the absence of sufficient cover. With increasing human populations in rural areas there are also increases in the number of dogs which compete with weasels for food, and often kill them (Rowe-Rowe 1990b).

Human importance

Striped weasels are in great demand, and are one of the most-used animals for traditional medicine (Cunningham & Zondi 1991). Skin and other parts of the weasel are used to bring good luck, give protection against harm, and in some areas as a love charm or to keep rodents out of homes (Cunningham & Zondi 1991; Rowe-Rowe 1990b).

THE CARNIVORES OF NATAL L
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 0-620-16629-0


STRIPED WEASEL SPOOR

Legal status

Scheduled as "Protected game" in KwaZulu-Natal. Not listed in the S A Red Data Book nor any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Steenbok occur mainly in northern and north-western KwaZulu-Natal, in the bioclimatic regions Drier upland and Bushveld, as well as Coast lowlands in the north east. The total population is estimated at about 2500. Protected areas in which they occur are Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park (ca 300), Mkhuze (250), Ozabeni area in Sodwana State Forest (ca 300), Eastern Shores, Ithala, Spioenkop, Vryheid Hill, and Weenen. The overall distributional range of the steenbok was probably similar to the current range. Current distribution is, however, likely to be more fragmented, with lower numbers.

Living requirements

In KwaZulu-Natal steenbok occur in open grassland or lightly wooded (with scrub) grassland, on flat to gently undulating terrain, up to an altitude of 1350 m, in the drier bioclimatic regions (see above). The steenbok is both a grazer and a browser, being very selective for both plant species and portions of the plant. Forbs, growing in the grass layer, are favoured (Cohen 1976). In suitable habitat in KwaZulu-Natal steenbok can occur at a density of 1/30 ha. Density drops to about 1/100 ha in less suitable areas. They are not dependent on permanent water.

Social organisation

Steenbok are most commonly recorded singly (78 %) or in pairs (16 %) (Rowe-Rowe 1971). Occasionally an adult female or a pair plus young is recorded. Both adult males and females are reputed to be territorial (Skinner & Smithers 1990)

Population dynamics

The adult sex ratio is 1 : 1 (Mentis 1972). Steenbok are not seasonal breeders. Gestation is about 5,5 months, age at first parturition 12 - 18 months, and a female can be expected to produce one calf per year (Mentis 1972). Potential lifespan is about 8 years.

Threats

Being small, steenbok are particularly vulnerable to unnatural predation by dogs, which are increasing in numbers on private land. It is possible that suitable habitat has been lost or is being reduced owing to bush encroachment.

Human importance

Numbers shot annually on farms and game ranches are low (30 - 40/year). Steenbok are not regarded as problems.

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2


STEENBOK SPOOR

Legal status

Fully protected under the KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Management Act No. 9 of 1997, the green turtle is a non breeding resident in South Africa. The World Conservation Union (IUCN) considers it endangered and it is scheduled under Appendix 1 of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species(CITES).

Distribution and status

Very common resident along the east coast of South Africa and widespread and common throughout all littoral zones of the western Indian Ocean. The only sea turtle feeding almost exclusively on marine angiosperms and algae. It has in the past been extensively exploited for its meat and cartilage and is especially sought after as the basis of high quality soups. It continues to be exploited for domestic consumption in most of the western Indian Ocean but large scale commercial exploitation has been effectively terminated

Living requirements

The conservation situation in the region appears to be stable to improving. All major nesting grounds eg. Europa, Tromelin and Aldabra are certainly stable with Aldabra increasing. Lesser nesting islands such as the Glorious Group are definitely increasing and protective measure on the other important nesting sites of Mayotte and Moheli are becoming effective.

Social organisation

Tagging studies over the past thirty years show overlap on feeding grounds of turtles from all major nesting sites with the western waters of Madagascar a primary concentration of feeding sites. Young turtles are extremely widely distributed being found as far South as False Bay in South Africa. Green turtle hatchlings spend about a year in their pelagic phase before returning to coastlines where they may spend many years. They are extremely loyal to their feeding grounds where they maintain grazing meadows cropping the nutritious new growth. Although they gather in huge concentrations for nesting, Europa can have 18 - 20 000 females during peak seasons, there is little or no social interaction between individual green turtles and no evidence of synchronised activity.

Threats

Ongoing threats are restricted to casual domestic exploitation on feeding grounds and poaching on the more vulnerable nesting beaches. At present such exploitation does not constitute a critical threat to green turtles in the region.

Human importance

The most important value of green turtles to humans remains a source of protein for poor coastal villagers especially around Madagascar, Mozambique, Tanzania and Kenya where, in all four countries legislative controls remain weak to non-existent.

Legal status

Fully protected under the KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Management Act No 9 of 1997, the leatherback turtle is regarded as endangered by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and is Scheduled under Appendix 1 of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).

Distribution and status

.

Living requirements

Social organisation

Population dynamics

Threats

Human importance

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Unprotected outside of reserves in KwaZulu-Natal, listed as "Rare" in the SA Red Data Book, and not on any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

The aardwolf occurs mainly in the Drier upland bioclimatic region of north-western KwaZulu-Natal, and is less frequently recorded from Coast lowlands of the north-east, Bushveld regions, Coast hinterland, and Highland. Although widely distributed, it is rare.

Current distribution is similar to the range indicated by Pringle (1977) and Rowe-Rowe (1978a). Specimens in museums, collected between 1932 and 1972, originate from Bishopstowe, Bulwer, Cato Ridge, Claridge, Dalton Bridge (near Moor Park), Deepdale, Estcourt, Greytown, Makatini Flats, New Hanover, Otto's Bluff, and Winterton. For additional localities see Rowe-Rowe (1978a). The only recent (1990) specimen was collected at Middelrus. Protected areas from which it was recorded are, Cape Vidal, Chelmsford, Eastern Shores, Highmoor, Ithala, Mkhomazi, Mount Currie, Oribi Gorge, Sodwana Bay, Sodwana State Forest, Spioenkop, Umfolozi, and Weenen. Aardwolves have not been seen in Hluhluwe GR since 1982 (Whateley & Brooks 1985). Dixon (1964) recorded P. cristatus from Mkhuze GR, stating that numbers were increasing, but none have been reported during the past 20 years (Rowe-Rowe 1978a; P.S. Goodman, NPB, in litt.).

Living requirements

In KwaZulu-Natal open country is favoured. Presence is dependent on the occurrence of snouted harvester termites Trinervetermes spp., their main food. Old aardvark or porcupine burrows are used as dens.

Social organisation

Mated pairs occupy a territory of 100 - 400 ha, but do not forage together. Males help to rear the young by remaining at the den when the female forages. Young animals remain in the territory until a year old, then become transients (Richardson 1986; 1987).

Population dynamics

Mating takes place during winter and the young are born during spring after a gestation of 90 days. Litters usually consist of two to four. The young begin to forage with an adult at 12 weeks and are weaned at 16 weeks (Richardson 1986; 1987). Survival of young beyond weaning is 50 - 70 %. The sex ratio of adults is 1 : 1.

Threats

Aardwolves are often killed because of the incorrect belief that they prey on small domestic livestock, or when they are mistakenly idenitified as hyaenas. Poisoning termites on grazing lands would reduce their food supply and have an effect on the aardwolves themselves (Smithers 1986).

Human importance

It has been estimated that an aardwolf eats about 300 000 termites per night, and that it is an asset to the livestock farmer, particularly during periods of drought (Richardson 1986).

THE CARNIVORES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 0-620-16629-0


AARDWOLF SPOOR

Legal status

Unprotected outside of reserves in KwaZulu-Natal, listed as "Vulnerable" in the SA Red Data Book, and on Appendix II of CITES.

Distribution and status

Current distribution of the African wild cat is confined mainly to the grassland bioclimatic regions of western KwaZulu-Natal. The range is similar to that indicated by Pringle (1977). Rowe-Rowe (1978a) reported its occurrence in Ndumo GR, based on sight records, not confirmed in this study.

Earlier museum records (1959 - 1976) refer to specimens from Babanango, Donnybrook, Elandslaagte, Estcourt, Highflats, Lake Sibayi, Paulpietersberg, and Underberg. Some additional material records are contained in Rowe-Rowe (1978a). Protected areas from which African wild cats have been reported are Cathedral Peak. Chelmsford, Cobham, Coleford, Garden Castle, Giant's Castle, Kamberg, Lotheni, Mkhomazi, Monk's Cowl, Mount Currie, and Spioenkop.

Living requirements

In KwaZulu-Natal F. lybica has been recorded mainly in grassland where there is good cover. The diet consists primarily of small rodents, supplemented by birds (Rowe-Rowe 1978a; Skinner & Smithers 1990). Density in east Africa was estimated at 1/600 - 700 ha (Hendrichs 1972).

Social organisation

African wild cats are generally solitary. Females are sometimes accompanied by young or may be seen with adult males, when in oestrus. The adults of both sexes are territorial (Smithers 1986).

Population dynamics

Litters of up to five, usually three, are born during summer after a gestation of ca 60 days. One litter per season has been recorded (Smithers 1986).

Threats

The greatest threat to F. lybica is that it hybridizes with domestic cats F. catus, which Smithers (1986) believed could lead to virtual extinction of F. lybica. Domestic cats often become feral, increasing the chances of contact with wild cats. Rowe-Rowe (1978a) stated that feral F. catus occurred widely in KwaZulu-Natal.

Human importance

According to Cunningham & Zondi (1991) there is a demand for the African wild cat in traditional medicine. Domestic poultry is killed occasionally.

THE CARNIVORES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 0-620-16629-0


AFRICAN WILDCAT SPOOR

Legal status

Unprotected outside of reserves in KwaZulu-Natal, and not listed in the SA Red Data Book nor any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

The banded mongoose occurs in the Coast lowlands and Bushveld regions of north-east KwaZulu-Natal. It is regarded as fairly common to common. Current distributional range is not different from that described by Pringle (1977) nor Rowe-Rowe (1978a). Museum records dating back to 1922 indicate a similar range : Hillcrest, Lake Sibayi, Mkhuze River, Ndumo GR, Ngoya, Pietermaritzburg, Umfolozi GR, Umdoni Park, and Umkomaas. Protected areas in which it has been recorded are the St Lucia-Sodwana State Forest - Mkhuze complex, Beachwood Mangroves, Bluff, Enseleni, Harold Johnson, Hluhluwe, Kenneth Stainbank, Lake Eteza, Ndumo, Umfolozi, Umhlanga Lagoon, Umlalazi, and Vernon Crookes.

Living requirements

Favoured habitats are low-lying thornveld, coastal bush, riverine forest and bush, and dune forest. At Vernon Crookes NR, Maddock (1988) estimated density to be 2,4/km². The diet consists mainly of insects, myriapods, spiders, and fruits (Hiscocks 1989; Maddock 1988). Refuges are required for denning, e.g. termitaria, rocks, or thick underbush (Hiscocks & Perrin 1991).

Social organisation

The banded mongoose is a social species, occurring in small bands which live and forage together. At Vernon Crookes NR groups of up to nine individuals were recorded (Maddock 1988) and larger groups have been seen around Lake St Lucia and at Umfolozi GR. Duties of parental care are shared, with one or two females caring for all young while the others are foraging (Neal 1970; Rood 1975). Packs are believed to be territorial (Rood 1975).

Population dynamics

In Uganda it was found that a number of females come into oestrus at the same time. Each female gives birth to up to six young, after a gestation of about 60 days, and the young suckle from any lactating female (Rood 1975). On average there are two or three young per lactating female. When about four weeks old the young begin to forage with the adults, are full grown at ca 5 months, and sexually mature at 10 months. Less than 50 % survive to the age of 3 months. Adult sex ratio is 1 : 1.

Threats

Much of this mongoose's habitat on farmland is being lost to cultivation.

Human importance

There are no known uses. At camping grounds banded mongooses can become a nuisance to campers by entering tents and raiding food supplies.

THE CARNIVORES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 0-620-16629-0


BANDED MONGOOSE SPOOR

Legal status

Protected within all game and nature reserves (Ordinance 15 of 1974), and a proclaimed problem animal throughout the rest of KwaZulu-Natal (Ordinance 14 of 1978); not listed in the SA Red Data Book, nor any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

The black-backed jackal occurs throughout KwaZulu-Natal, from sea level to the summit of the Drakensberg, in all vegetation types. It is rated as common in western KwaZulu-Natal, and rare to very rare in and around Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park. Distributional range is similar to that reported by Rowe-Rowe (1978a). The largest population in a protected area is in the 240 000 ha Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park (Garden Castle, Cobham, Mkhomazi, Lotheni, Vergelegen, Kamberg, Highmoor, Giant's Castle, Monk's Cowl, Cathedral Peak, Royal Natal). Other KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Service protected areas in which black-backed jackal have been recorded are: , Blinkwater, Chelmsford, Coleford, False Bay, Ithala, Karkloof, Midmar, Mkhuze, Moor Park, Mount Currie, Oribi Gorge, Sodwana State Forest, Spioenkop, Umfolozi, Umtamvuna, Umvoti Vlei, Vernon Crookes and Weenen.

Records of former distribution indicate that black-backed jackals occurred in western KwaZulu-Natal from Newcastle southwards to the upper Thukela River (1860 - 1875), Giant's Castle to Underberg (ca 1900), southern KwaZulu-Natal and the midlands (1860 - 1870), north of the Thukela to present-day Umfolozi GR and Hluhluwe village (1850), and in the old Pongola Game Reserve (1895) (NPB unpubl. records). Museum specimens originate from Cedarville, Giant's Castle GR, Highflats, Hluhluwe GR, Richmond, Ithala GR, and Spioenkop NR. See also other records of material collected in Rowe-Rowe (1978a). During the past twenty years populations have declined in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park, where they formerly occurred throughout (Bourquin et al. 1971); Mkhuze GR where they were "plentiful" (Dixon 1964); and on the farms of the Lower Mkhuze area. Contributary factors may have been canine distemper (J.R.B. Flamand, NPB, pers. comm.) and sarcoptic mange (Keep 1970).

Living requirements

In KwaZulu-Natal favoured habitats are open grassland and open savanna, where there is an adequate supply of small mammals. In Giant's Castle Game Reserve mean home range size was ca 1800 ha and estimated density 1 jackal/250 ha (Rowe-Rowe 1982). Densities outside of protected areas in western KwaZulu-Natal are probably lower; possibly 1/500 to 1/1000 ha. In Drakensberg protected areas over 50 % of the diet consisted of small mammals, and other items were hare-sized mammals, carrion, antelope, birds, invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians (Rowe-Rowe 1978a, 1983). The diet on farms was similar, except that sheep were also eaten.

Social organisation

Pair bonds are formed by adults, usually > 3 years old. Once mated the pair remains together for life. Mated pairs are territorial, defending the territory against other mated pairs. When a young jackal reaches the age of a year it may remain within the parent pair's territory and help them to feed and protect the next litter, or it may become a solitary, wandering animal. In Giant's Castle GR mated adults had home ranges (= territory?) of 1900 ha, young ( ∠ 1 year) occupied ca 900 ha, and the mean home range size of unmated adults was 3300 ha (Rowe-Rowe 1982). Jackals generally forage singly, and only about 20 % of observations involve two or more individuals (Rowe-Rowe 1984).

Population dynamics

n western KwaZulu-Natal most jackal are born between June and September with a peak in July (Rowe-Rowe 1978a, 1984), after a gestation of 60 days (Ginsberg & Macdonald 1990). Lactation lasts 8 - 10 weeks (Ginsberg & Macdonald 1990) and at 14 weeks the young begin to forage with their mother or both parents (Moehlman 1980). Mean litter size is five (range 2 - 8), of which one or two survive beyond 14 weeks (Rowe-Rowe 1984, 1986). Age at sexual maturity is 11 months, but reproduction is usually delayed until the age of ca 3 years (Moehlman 1979). The male : female sex ratio is 1 : 1 in Drakensberg protected areas (Rowe-Rowe 1984). On farms the ratio was almost 2 : 1, but Rowe-Rowe (1984) speculated that this could be an artefact of the sampling method. Rowe-Rowe (1984) suggested that the population in the Drakensberg consisted of about 25 % mated adults, ca 25 % immature (∠ 1 year) jackals, and ca 50 % unmated sub-adults and adults. Very few black-backed jackal appear to live longer than 7 years in the wild (Rowe-Rowe 1982, 1984, 1986).

Threats

In parts of KwaZulu-Natal sheep farmers have attempted to eradicate jackal using poisons, foxhounds, or traps, or more than one method. The black-backed jackal is so adaptable, and its reproductive capacity is such that few attempts to extirpate it from an area have succeeded (Rowe-Rowe 1986). Better returns for effort expended are achieved by preventing damage to livestock and attempting to kill the individual jackal responsible for the damage.

Human importance

In an opinion survey among sheep farmers 3 % of the annual lamb crop was reputedly killed by predators (Lawson 1989), with the black-backed jackal believed to be the main culprit. Investigations done on sheep farms where jackals preyed on lambs revealed that 2 % of the total flock was killed by jackals in a year (Rowe-Rowe 1975a). Proportions of the annual lamb crop killed on individual farms in the study area ranged from 0,4 - 6 %. Sheep farmers attempt to eliminate jackal (and most other carnivores) in certain regions of KwaZulu-Natal, whereas others practise control (trying to eliminate the culprits), and some work towards damage prevention. All of these methods cost money. The Problem Animal Ordinance also makes provision for the legal formation of problem animal hunt clubs and the eligibility of such clubs to receive subsidies from the Provincial Administration.

THE CARNIVORES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 0-620-16629-0


BLACK-BACKED JACKAL SPOOR

Legal status

In KwaZulu-Natal the black rhino is categorised as 'Specially protected game', it is listed as 'Critically Endangered' in the 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals and appears on Appendix I of CITES.

Distribution and status

Black rhino occur in the following protected areas in KwaZulu-Natal, Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park (370), Mkhuze (80), Eastern Shores of St Lucia (13), Ithala (43), Weenen (8), and Ndumo (25), giving a total of ca 560 animals (figures for 1998). The Mkhuze and Hluhluwe-Umfolozi populations are original. Introductions to the other protected areas originated from both of these reserves in each case. Former distribution appears to have been in the north-east of KwaZulu-Natal, no further south than the Mhlatuze River (references in du Plessis 1969, and NPB unpubl. records). One record refers to the occurrence in the old Pongola Game Reserve between 1895 and 1897. The past-distribution map which du Plessis (1969) produced is misleading in that it indicates the whole of Natal.

Living requirements

Preferred areas are thickets and closed woodland where conditions are semi-arid to moist. Major limiting factors appear to be nutritious browse, particularly at the end of the dry season, dense cover, and water (P.M. Brooks, NPB, in litt.). Area requirements in the valley bushveld and arid lowveld regions of KwaZulu-Natal are roughly 1/300 - 400 ha. When black rhino density built up to 1/70 ha in northern Hluhluwe GR during 1961, a population crash followed (Brooks, in litt.) Current densities in HUP range from 0.31 to 0.57 animals per square kilometer(1998).

Social organisation

Brooks (in litt.) provided the following information: The black rhino is probably not territorial. Home ranges of both sexes in KwaZulu-Natal's protected areas range from 200 ha in dense thickets to 500 ha in more open areas. Males are generally solitary. Associations between an adult female and her immediate offspring occur. Large, loose associations occur when a female is in oestrus, or when family groups join up temporarily. Group sizes in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park range from 1 - 7; mean 1,5.

Population dynamics

The age at first parturition is 6 or 7 years, gestation is about 15 months, and the calving interval is 24 to 30 months (Goddard 1967). The sex ratio in the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi population is close to 1 : 1 (Hitchins & Brooks 1986). Potential lifespan is about 40 years (Mentis 1972).

Threats

There are currently no direct threats to black rhino in KwaZulu-Natal, other than the fact that some of the populations are small, and there is very limited hope for expansion.

Human importance

No use is made of black rhino in KwaZulu-Natal, other than those which have been sold to game ranchers since 1990 (about five per year).

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ISBN 1-874965-07-2


BLACK RHINO SPOOR

Legal status

Unprotected outside of reserves in KwaZulu-Natal (but to be elevated to "Specially protected" status), not listed in the SA Red Data Book, and on Appendix II of CITES.

Distribution and status

Lions occur only in the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park (population ca 80) and five on the private property Phinda, adjoining Mkhuze GR. The Hluhluwe-Umfolozi population originates from one resident animal and six that were introduced from Timbavati, Transvaal, during 1965. The Phinda lions were introduced during 1991. Information on former distribution (NPB unpubl. records) indicates that lions were most regularly encountered north of the Thukela River, throughout Zululand and Tongaland, from 1824 - 1856. They were still present at some localities after the latter date : Ingwavuma 1899, Candover 1924, Golela 1938, Umfolozi Game Reserve 1920, and Pongola River in Tongaland 1921. Other localities at which lions were recorded are Amatikulu (1852), Incandu River (1863), Charlestown (1868), Noordsberg (1855), and Elandslaagte (1901).

Living requirements

In the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park lions have been recorded in most major vegetation types, namely open woodland, closed woodland with thickets, and riverine forest (Whateley & Brooks 1985), but favour riverine habitats during winter. Key habitat requirements for lions are that the area should contain an ample supply of food, shade to lie in, and some cover from which prey can be stalked (Skinner & Smithers 1990). In Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park favoured prey animals are nyala, wildebeest, buffalo, impala, zebra, and warthog. Area requirements are about 100 km²/pride (Whateley & Brooks 1985).

Social organisation

Lions are social carnivores which exist in prides consisting of adult females and their young, plus attendant adult males. Both males and females are territorial, defending the boundaries of the pride's area. Males may move between prides (Grobler et al. 1984; Skinner & Smithers 1990). Mean pride size in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park is 10, range 4 - 17 (Whateley & Brooks 1985).

Population dynamics

Breeding is not seasonal. Litters of 2 - 6 are born after a gestation of ca 220 days. The young are weaned at 10 weeks and remain with the mother until about 18 months old. At 24 months young lions are usually independent. Males reach sexual maturity at ca 26 months, but seldom play a role in reproduction before the age of five years. Females generally have their first litter at about 42 months, and are capable of producing a litter every two years until the age of ca 15 years (Smuts 1982).

Threats

Lions are not compatible with human settlement or livestock farming, therefore there is no scope for the expansion of the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi population beyond the reserve boundaries.

Human importance

There is a high demand for lion fat in traditional medicine (Cunningham & Zondi 1991). Animals that leave protected area boundaries kill livestock. Staff of the KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Service assist in destroying such problem lions if called upon to do so.

THE CARNIVORES OF NATAL
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ISBN 1-874965-07-2


ISBN 0-620-16629-0

Legal status

Scheduled as "Protected game" in KwaZulu-Natal. Not listed in the S A Red Data Book nor on any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Mountain reedbuck currently occur in hilly terrain, mainly in the western half of KwaZulu-Natal in the grassland bioclimatic regions Montane, Highland, Drier upland, and Moist upland; marginally in Mistbelt; and in some parts of Bushveld regions. Altogether there are over 80 separate populations. The largest population extends from East Griqualand in the south, along the western border (Drakensberg), to the north west of the province. The largest population within protected areas is estimated to be 1700 - 2000 in the contiguous reserves of the Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park, i.e. Bushmans Nek to Royal Natal (ca 240 000 ha). Other protected areas in which they occur are, Coleford, Hluhluwe, Ithala, Mkhuze, Moor Park, Mount Currie (50), Spioenkop, Umfolozi, Vernon Crookes, and Vryheid NR (40).

No estimate of the numbers on private land has been made. In their survey of game on private land Howard & Marchant (1984) recorded mountain reedbuck on properties in 75 randomly selected eighth-degree squares (n = 273), where numbers were stable (63 %) or increasing (23 %), and decreasing on 14 %. On another 14 properties mountain reedbuck had become extinct. Former distribution was probably similar to what has been currently recorded, with mountain reedbuck occurring patchily, wherever there was suitable habitat. Some small populations are likely to have disappeared, and in areas more densely populated by humans, numbers are probably lower owing to loss of habitat or disturbance.

Living requirements

Favoured habitat is grassland on steep to very steep hill slopes (20 to 30 degrees), where there are rocks or some woody plants (Rowe-Rowe 1983), up to 2200 m above sea level in the Drakensberg. Whereas other montane and highland antelopes have been found to show preference for "sweeter" northern aspects, mountain reedbuck make equal use of all aspects (Rowe-Rowe 1983). The mountain reedbuck is a very selective grazer, feeding only on certain grass species, preferring to feed on short, recently burnt grass, and using long grass for cover (Oliver et al. 1978, Rowe-Rowe 1982 a). Ecological densities of mountain reedbuck in the Drakensberg range from 1/11 ha to 1/32 ha (Oliver et al. 1978, Rowe-Rowe & Scotcher 1986).

Social organisation

Mountain reedbuck occur either as single males or females, or in small herds of up to 14 animals, comprising an adult male, and one or more adult females plus their young (Oliver et al. 1978, Rowe-Rowe 1982 b). Single adult males made up 16 - 24 % of groups recorded and solitary females 6 - 15 %, while small groups (2 - 14) amounted to 61 - 78 % (Oliver et al. 1978, Rowe-Rowe 1982 b). Typical groups consist of four or five. It is not known whether mountain reedbuck are territorial, but Oliver et al. (1978) suggested that the herd composition and spacing is indicative of territoriality.

Population dynamics

Male : female adult sex ratios ranged from 1 :1,9 to 1 : 2,6 at three different study areas in the Drakensberg (Oliver et al. 1978, Rowe-Rowe 1982 b, Southgate 1979). Reproduction is not seasonal, with young being born throughout the year. Oliver et al. (1978) and Rowe-Rowe (1982 b) did, however, record highest numbers of juveniles during January and February. This may possibly indicate a December peak in births, as mountain reedbuck practise lying-out behaviour for four weeks or more. Gestation is about 8 months (Bothma 1989). Age at first parturition is apparently during the third year : 29 months established by Rowe-Rowe (1973 b). Potential lifespan is 12 years (Mentis 1972), but possibly lower under harsh conditions. In the Drakensberg most deaths were recorded between August and October, following the severe winter when food quantity and quality drop to critical levels (Rowe-Rowe & Scotcher 1986). Juveniles (under 1 year old) comprise 10 - 16 % of the population (Rowe-Rowe 1982 b, Southgate 1979). Rowe-Rowe (1982 b) recorded 29 young (less than 1 year old) per 100 females in Giant's Castle GR.

Threats

Expansion of mountain reedbuck populations is limited owing to their specialised habitat requirements. On many private properties, and the periphery of some protected areas, mountain reedbuck are killed by poachers or dogs.

Human importance

On average 46 mountain reedbuck per annum are legally shot on farms and about 160 are hunted by foreign clients or local hunters on game ranches. No problems have been reported.

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ISBN 1-874965-07-2

Legal status

Scheduled as "Protected game" in KwaZulu-Natal. Not listed in the S A Red Data Book nor any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Skinner & Smithers (1990) gave the southernmost limit of original distribution as Mhlatuze River. Anderson (1978) and du Plessis (1969) could not find reliable evidence to indicate that nyala occurred south of Nyalazi River. Original distribution appears to have been east of 32 E and about as far south as 28 20' S. The bioclimatic regions in which nyala originally occurred in north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal are Coast lowlands, and lowland and riverine Bushveld, up to about 200 m above sea level.

Nyala have been introduced to many areas outside of their original range. At present over 22 000 occur in at least 36 separate populations, nine of which are in protected areas, viz Mkhuze (7000), Ndumo (4000), Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park (7000), False Bay (1100), St Lucia (300), Sodwana Bay, Enseleni, Ithala, and Vernon Crookes. The largest population on private land is in the Lower Mkhuze area, where there are roughly 2000. The numbers and distributional range are increasing in KwaZulu-Natal (Mentis 1974, Howard & Marchant 1984).

Living requirements

The preferred habitat is dense bush or thickets as well as woodland areas in which there are thickets, on flat to gently undulating terrain. The nyala is a grazer and a browser, showing some degree of selection, and is dependent on water. During the rainy season grass forms the bulk of the diet, while browsing occurs mainly during the drier months (Anderson 1978). Area requirements are satisfied where nyala occur at approximately 1/12 ha (Anderson 1978). Nyala thrive under the climatic conditions of hot, humid summers, and warm dry winters. High mortality occurs during sudden cold spells, especially if these are accompanied by rain.

Social organisation

Adult males are not territorial. Temporary dominance by one male over others occurs in the presence of an oestrus female (Anderson 1978). Adult males and females have home ranges of about 100 ha, which overlap. Female herds, consisting of adult females and their offspring, usually consist of about six animals. Young males leave the female herd when 14 to 24 months old and join male groups, which typically consist of three individuals (Anderson 1978).

Population dynamics

The sex ratio among adults is 1 : 1. Gestation lasts for 7 months and the age at first parturition is between 2 and 3 years. Breeding is not seasonal, with conceptions occurring throughout the year, although spring and autumn peaks have been recorded (Anderson 1978). On average, parturition occurs every 10 months until the age of 14 years.

Threats

There are no threats to the large populations in the protected areas or on most ranches in north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal.

Human importance

Nyala are highly prized by overseas trophy hunters and local sportsmen: roughly 600 - 700 being shot per year. Live animals are in continual demand for introductions to properties throughout most of South Africa. Problems associated with nyala are that populations are sometimes difficult to manage, owing to the dense vegetation in which they occur. It is believed that in habitats in which nyala did not previously occur, they compete with bushbuck for food, as they can feed to a greater height above ground level than can bushbuck. Other forest antelopes, e.g. blue duiker, red duiker, and suni have also been found to be negatively influenced by high numbers of nyala (Bowland 1990; Lawson 1986).

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ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Scheduled as 'Protected game' in KwaZulu-Natal, listed as 'Vulnerable' in the S A Red Data Book, and not listed on any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

There are approximately 1500 oribi in KwaZulu-Natal, which occur in about 120 separate populations. They occur in 23 protected areas, Blinkwater, Chelmsford, Cobham, Coleford, Garden Castle, Giant's Castle, Highmoor, Ithala, Impendle, Kamberg, Lotheni, Mkhomazi, Midmar, Mount Currie, Oribi Gorge, Royal Natal National Park, Sileza, Sodwana State Land, Umgeni Vlei, Umtamvuna, Umvoti Vlei, Vergelegen, Vernon Crookes, Vryheid and Weenen. The largest populations are in Giant's Castle (ca 100), Highmoor 50, Chelmsford 143 and Cobham 70. The overall past distribution of the oribi in KwaZulu-Natal was probably similar to current distribution, with the animals occurring in suitable grassland habitat mainly in the bioclimatic regions Coast hinterland, Mistbelt, Highland, and Moist upland; and less abundant in Coast lowlands and Drier upland. Past distribution is likely to have been less fragmented than at present. In a survey of game on private land in randomly selected eighth-degree squares, oribi were reported to have disappeared from 30 of 115 properties, and declining numbers were reported on 24 of the 85 farms on which they were present (Howard & Marchant 1984).

Living requirements

Oribi favour grassland on flat to gently undulating terrain, where there is both short grass and long grass during the same year (Rowe-Rowe 1982 a, 1983). Short grass is needed to provide easily accessible, nutritious food (Rowe-Rowe 1982 a), as they feed very selectively on certain grasses or often only on parts of these grasses, as well as on some forbs (Everett 1991, Viljoen 1982). Long grass is required as cover for adults, as well as shelter for the young which are left to lie out for the first eight to ten weeks. Ecological densities range from one oribi per 6 ha to 1/30 ha, depending on the quality of the habitat and how it is managed (Everett 1991, Oliver et al 1978, Rowe-Rowe & Scotcher 1986). Oribi have not been recorded actually drinking water (Reilly 1988), apparently obtaining sufficient moisture from their mesic diet.

Social organisation

In the Drakensberg oribi occur mainly in pairs, or small family groups of three, occasionally four (Oliver et al. 1978, Rowe-Rowe 1982 b). Single males occur more frequently (ca 25 % of adults) than do single females (ca 10 %) (Oliver et al. 1978, Rowe-Rowe 1982 b). On properties at midland elevations in KwaZulu-Natal mean group sizes are slightly larger, and 30 % of the groups contain more than one female (Everett 1991). Both the adult male and the female of a mated pair appear to be territorial (Viljoen 1982). Home range (= territory) sizes are from 20 to 60 ha, depending on habitat quality (Oliver et al. 1978, Viljoen 1982). In the tropical grasslands of East Africa oribi occur in larger groups than those recorded in southern Africa, consisting of an adult male, two or more adult females, and their young (Jarman 1974). Rowe-Rowe (1982 b) hypothesised that the smaller groups recorded in KwaZulu-Natal may be indicative of sub-optimal habitat. Rowe-Rowe et al. (1992) placed the oribi of the Drakensberg in the socialorganisation category of antelopes which occur singly or in pairs, whereas Jarman (1974) grouped them with antelopes which form small herds. The social organisation at midland elevations in KwaZulu-Natal appears to be intermediate between these two categories (Rowe-Rowe et al. 1992).

Population dynamics

Mating takes place during April to June, and young are born mainly between November and January (Oliver et al. 1978, Rowe-Rowe 1982 b), after a gestation of 7 months (Mentis 1972, Viljoen 1982). Age at first parturition has not been accurately established, but it appears to be at 2 years (Rowe-Rowe 1982 b). Females can be expected to produce one young per year, to a maximum age of 8 - 13 years (Mentis 1972). The sex ratio of adult oribis in the Drakensberg was found to be 1 : 1 (Oliver et al 1978, Rowe-Rowe 1982 b). Juveniles (under 1 year old) comprised 14 % of the population, i.e. 36 per 100 females (Rowe-Rowe 1982 b). At midland elevations in KwaZulu-Natal the sex ratio of 1 : 1,34 was slightly in favour of females (Everett 1991).

Threats

Rowe-Rowe (1988 c) recognised a number of reasons for declining oribi numbers. They include loss of habitat for the planting of crops or commercial afforestation, lack of cover on heavily grazed farms or where entire grassland areas are burnt annually, increasing rural human populations and the consequent sub-division of properties leading to more fences, and concomitant increases in the number of dogs. A major concern is the oribi's fragmented distribution : there are limited viable populations, and numerous small, isolated populations, vulnerable to human interference and natural catastrophes.

Human importance

Quota permit returns indicate that there has been an increase in the number of oribi shot annually. For the period 1974 - 1981 the annual average was five, and from 1982 - 1992 it increased to 13. Live oribi have been sold for high prices on game auctions, which seems to have catylised some landowners into selling animals. Unfortunately oribi sold at auctions do not always go to suitable habitat, therefore the species does not benefit

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ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Scheduled as "Protected game" in KwaZulu-Natal, listed as "Rare" in the S A Red Data Book, and not on any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Red duikers occur mainly in north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal, and in small isolated populations along the coast, in the bioclimatic region Coast lowlands, and also in riverine lowland Bushveld, up to 200 m above sea level, in north eastern KwaZulu-Natal. Smithers (1986) stated that prior to 1900 the distribution was probably continuous from Mozambique to at least as far south as Durban. It is difficult to estimate the number currently present in KwaZulu-Natal. The largest population of ca 1000 is that in the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park, and there are about 300 in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park. A guess would be that the total for KwaZulu-Natal is more than 2000 but less than 3000. Other KZNNCS areas which contain red duiker are, Dlinza Forest, Enseleni, Entumeni Forest, Harold Johnson, Kenneth Stainbank, Krantzkloof, Lake Eteza, Oribi Gorge, Vernon Crookes. Red duikers are also fairly common in Ndumo.

Living requirements

Red duikers are confined to coastal forest and dense bush, under warm, humid conditions. It is both a forager (eating freshly fallen leaves) and a browser, independent of free water (Bowland 1990). Under ideal conditions (e.g. at Charter's Creek, St Lucia) red duikers occur at a density of 1/0,5 to 1 ha. In less favourable areas densities range from 1/2,5 to 5 ha (Bowland 1990).

Social organisation

Occur singly, or in pairs, or a maximum of a pair plus young. Red duikers do not appear to be territorial (Bowland 1990). Adult males and females have overlapping home ranges. Amongst males home ranges of 3 to 9,5 ha were recorded, while those of females measured 2 to 17,5 ha (Bowland 1990).

Population dynamics

Breeding may occur throughout the year, with most births possibly during spring and summer (Mentis 1972, Rowe-Rowe 1972). Gestation is approximately 7 months, age at first parturition 18 - 24 months, calving interval about 9 months, and potential lifespan 8 or 9 years (Bowland, pers. comm.). The sex ratio does not appear to deviate significantly from 1 : 1 (Mentis 1972).

Threats

Agricultural and urban development have been responsible for the loss of over 70 % of KwaZulu-Natal's coastal forest habitats (Smithers 1986). Only large populations in protected areas are currently free of immediate threats. Small, isolated populations are vulnerable, and with increasing human populations are being harassed and depleted by poachers and dogs.

Human importance

On game ranches on which they occur red duikers are shot as trophies at up to 30 per year. In addition, the average number shot per annum on other farms is seven.

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
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ISBN 1-874965-07-2

Legal status

Distribution and status

.

Living requirements

Social organisation

Population dynamics

Threats

Human importance

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ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Unprotected outside of reserves in KwaZulu-Natal, listed as "Vulnerable" in the SA Red Data Book, and on Appendix III of CITES (Botswana, Ghana).

Distribution and status

The ratel is very rare in KwaZulu-Natal, limited mainly to the Bushveld regions and Coast lowlands of the north-east. Current distribution is slightly less extensive than that indicated by Rowe-Rowe (1978a) and Pringle (1977). Protected areas from which ratels have been recorded are False Bay, Hluhluwe, Ithala, Mkhuze, Ndumo, Sodwana State Forest, and Umfolozi.

Living requirements

In KwaZulu-Natal ratels appear to favour drier, well-wooded, low-lying habitats in the Bushveld regions and Coastal lowlands of north-east KwaZulu-Natal. Density in a portion of Serengeti National Park was estimated to be 1/10 km² (Waser 1980), and is probably lower where they occur in KwaZulu-Natal. The diet includes mainly small animals : scorpions, spiders, mice, lizards, snakes, millipedes, centipedes, and insects (including bee larvae and honey) (Skinner & Smithers 1990).

Social organisation

Ratels appear to be solitary, occasionally being recorded in groups of two or three (Rowe-Rowe 1978a).

Population dynamics

No information is available on reproduction in KwaZulu-Natal. Elsewhere in southern Africa breeding does not appear to be seasonal and litters of two have been recorded (Skinner & Smithers 1990).

Threats

In some parts of KwaZulu-Natal ratels are killed for use in traditional medicine. Smithers (1986) pointed out that because they are very rare the killing of ratels has led to local extinctions. They are occasionally also caught in traps set for problem animals, or are accidentally poisoned.

Human importance

Parts of ratels are used in traditional medicine as protective charms or as charms for hunting dogs (Cunningham & Zondi 1991). Ratels are reputed to occasionally kill poultry and raid apiaries (Smithers 1986). They are sometimes apparently incorrectly accused of killing livestock.

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ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Categorised as "Protected game" in KwaZulu-Natal. Not listed in the S A Red Data Book nor CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Shortridge (1934) indicated that hartebeest previously occurred in the west of KwaZulu-Natal. Various additional records extracted from the literature, however, suggest that hartebeest may have been more widely distributed (du Plessis 1969; NPB unpubl. records), having been reported from the grasslands of the coastal hinterland, midlands, and western KwaZulu-Natal; East Griqualand; as well as in bushveld. The last record of naturally occurring animals was in 1952 at New Hanover. There are currently about 900 hartebeest in 18 populations in KwaZulu-Natal. Seven populations are in protected areas at Chelmsford, Midmar, Coleford, Giant's Castle-Highmoor, Ithala, Spioenkop, and Weenen. The largest populations are in Chelmsford NR (50), Weenen NR (140), Spioenkop NR (120), Midmar NR (140), Ithala GR (175), and on the farm Vermaakskraal, Helpmekaar district (100). All of the hartebeest originate from introduced animals, mainly from Kimberley.

Social organisation

Kok (1975) described a social system in which each territorial male remained with a particular harem herd (adult females and young) throughout the year, and in which there were separate bachelor herds. Harem herds of 10 to 20 individuals occupied home ranges of about 100 to 400 ha. His study was done in the Orange Free State.

Population dynamics

Breeding is seasonal. Rutting takes place mainly during February, and calving peaks during October (Rowe-Rowe 1972 a), after an 8 month gestation (Mentis 1972). Age at first parturition is 3 years, one calf per year is produced, and potential lifespan is 13 - 16 years (Mentis 1972). The male : female population sex ratio is 1 : 1 to 1 : 3.

Threats

Other than the five populations of over 100 individuals (see above), and one of 50, the remainder are very small (mean 9) and isolated. They are therefore vulnerable. Introductions to small fenced properties have not been successful, neither have those to Highland or Montane grassland (e.g. Giant's Castle) succeeded.

Human importance

The only significant hunting of hartebeest takes place on the game ranch "Vermaakskraal". Very few are shot on quota permits on other properties. Hartebeest are much sought after for release on private properties, but many landowners are put off by the high price asked.

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
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ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Unprotected outside of reserves in KwaZulu-Natal, listed as "Rare" in the SA Red Data Book, and on Appendix II of CITES.

Distribution and status

Serval are fairly widely distributed in KwaZulu-Natal, but rare throughout their range. In southern and western KwaZulu-Natal they occur in the higher rainfall grassland bioclimatic regions of Coast hinterland, Highland, Mistbelt, and Moist upland. In the north-east they occur in Coast lowlands and higher-rainfall Bushveld regions. Current distributional range is similar to that given by Pringle (1977) and Rowe-Rowe (1978a). Information on earlier distribution is not available. Museum specimens are from Hluhluwe GR and near Kamberg NR (1987-89). Protected areas in which serval have been recorded are the Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park from Garden Castle to Royal Natal, Coleford, Eastern Shores, Enseleni, Hluhluwe, Ithala, Karkloof, Ndumo, Oribi Gorge, Pongola Bush, Sodwana State Forest, St Lucia, Umfolozi, Umtamvuna, Umvoti Vlei, Vryheid, and Weenen.

Living requirements

Favoured habitats in KwaZulu-Natal are the higher rainfall areas where there is long grass and vleis, and where there are high populations of small rodents. Cover is very important for shelter during periods of inactivity, and provides ideal habitat for small mammals (Bowland 1990). Dens in which young are reared are usually in dense, long grass, or under low bushes. Servals feed almost exclusively on small mammals. In western KwaZulu-Natal small mammals comprised 90 % of the diet, mainly vlei rats Otomys sp. (Bowland 1990). Other items eaten are birds and reptiles. A similar diet was recorded in Zimbabwe (Smithers 1978). Estimated area requirements in ideal habitat are ca 12,5 km²/serval (Bowland 1990).

Social organisation

Serval are solitary, except when mating or when young accompany a female. Bowland (1990) estimated that adult servals had home ranges of 15 - 30 km² which overlapped those of other adults, but in which there were non-overlapping core areas. This study was done at Kamberg Nature Reserve and on surrounding farmland in what appeared to be good serval habitat.

Population dynamics

Litters of up to three are born after a gestation of ca 70 days (Smithers 1978). Data from KwaZulu-Natal suggest that young are born during late spring ( November) through to the end of summer (February or March)(Rowe-Rowe 1978a). A similar breeding season was recorded in Zimbabwe (Smithers 1978). In both of these areas births coincide with the period during which small mammal populations are increasing and reach a peak.

Threats

The status of serval is secure in the Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park. In a number of areas outside of the park servals are vulnerable. Where grassland is burnt annually and is heavily grazed there are low numbers of small mammals (Rowe-Rowe 1982) and insufficient cover for serval. Other areas of grassland are being ploughed to plant crops, and large tracts of humid to sub-humid grassland are being turned over to commercial afforestation. Serval are also killed as they are wrongly considered to be predators on livestock. In the study done by Bowland (1990) which included sheep farms, there was no sign of sheep in the diet in a large sample of scats examined. In some instances serval are mistakenly identified as leopards and steps are taken to have them destroyed.

Human importance

There is a high demand for serval skins in the traditional medicine trade (Cunningham & Zondi 1991). These are used mainly for ornamental dress. The only problem for which serval are responsible is the occasional killing of domestic poultry.

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
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ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Unprotected outside of reserves in KwaZulu-Natal, not listed in the SA Red Data Book, nor any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Recorded only from the Coast lowlands of north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal (St Lucia mouth northwards to Kosi Bay NR), at elevations below 100 m. Side-striped jackals appear to be more abundant than was the case during the early 1970s (cf: Pringle 1977, Rowe-Rowe 1978a). No reliable records of former distribution are available. Early travellers referred to "jackals" in the vicinity of Lake St Lucia. Museum specimens originate from Lake Sibayi (1976) and St Lucia. Protected areas in which they occur are the Ozabeni area of Sodwana State Forest, St Lucia, Eastern Shores of Lake St Lucia, and Cape Vidal.

Living requirements

Although reputed to favour thickly wooded areas, and avoiding open savanna (Ginsberg & Macdonald 1990; Skinner & Smithers 1990), side-striped jackals occur in both open grassland and lightly wooded savanna in north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal. Diet studies done elsewhere in southern Africa revealed that they feed on invertebrates, small vertebrates, and fruits and seeds (Bothma 1971; Skinner & Smithers 1990). Area requirements are not known.

Social organisation

The social unit appears to be a mated adult pair, although they are not always seen together. Young animals disperse at 11 months (Ginsberg & Macdonald 1990). It is not known whether they are territorial.

Population dynamics

Litters of 4-6 are born between August and October in Zimbabwe (Skinner & Smithers 1990), after a gestation of 57 - 70 days (exact period not determined). Lactation lasts 8 - 10 weeks, and sexual maturity is reached at 8 months (Ginsberg & Macdonald 1990), who give longevity as 10 - 12 years, but this may not apply to animals in the wild (see black-backed jackal).

Threats

No threats were identified.

Human importance

Not used by humans in KwaZulu-Natal, neither is it considered a problem animal.

THE CARNIVORES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE

Legal status

Categorised as "Specially protected game" in KwaZulu-Natal, listed as "Rare" in the SA Red Data Book, and on Appendix I of CITES.

Distribution and status

Leopards currently occur in the Bushveld bioclimatic regions of north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal, and are sparsely distributed elsewhere in central and western KwaZulu-Natal. The range is greater than that reported by Pringle (1977). Although status remains rare because they are sparsely distributed, both distributional range and numbers are increasing. A survey conducted during 1989 revealed that there are roughly 200 leopards in KwaZulu-Natal. Between 80 and 100 are in protected areas and ca 100 are on farmland, mainly in the Mkhuze Village, Candover, Lower Mkhuze, Magudu, Rooirand, Dwarsrand, Louwsburg, and Ngome areas. Protected areas in which they occur are Cape Vidal, Eastern Shores, Entumeni Forest, Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park (ca 50), Ithala (5-10), Mkhuze (20-30), Pongola Bush, Sodwana State Forest, and St Lucia. Unconfirmed sightings have been reported from Incandu, Karkloof, Oribi Gorge, and Vernon Crookes. Information on former occurrence (NPB unpubl. records) indicates that leopards were fairly widely distributed : mainly north of the Thukela River or "throughout Zululand" (1824 - 1890), Pongola Game Reserve (1895), Durban (= Port Natal) area (1824 - 1847), Kranskop (1875), and Oliviershoek area (1863). Reports in The Natal Witness newspaper refer to leopards at Giant's Castle in 1908 and at Goodoo Pass (Royal Natal NP) in 1910.

Living requirements

Cover is very important to leopards : both in the form of dense cover in which to lie-up and more open cover in which to hunt by stalking. In KwaZulu-Natal favoured areas are forests, thickets, closed woodland, and rocky, wooded hills. Leopards prey mainly on medium-sized antelopes e.g. impala, bushbuck, nyala, and reedbuck (Whateley & Brooks 1985). They also take a high percentage of dassies and hares (Grobler & Wilson 1972). Area requirements differ in relation to terrain and food supply, ranging from 20 - 500 km²/individual (various references in Skinner & Smithers 1990). In the Umfolozi-Hluhluwe Park density is roughly 1/20 km².

Social organisation

Leopards are solitary. Adults occur together only when mating. Both sexes appear to be territorial, but territories overlap. Home ranges (= territories?) are large.

Population dynamics

Breeding is not seasonal. Litters of two or three young are born after a gestation of ca 100 days. The eyes of the young open at 10 days, they suckle for 6 - 8 weeks and are weaned at 12 weeks, are able to kill on their own at 11 months, and become independent at 12 - 14 months. Roughly one cub per litter survives to this stage. Interval between litters is > 14 months. Adult sex ratio is 1 : 1 (Grobler et al. 1984; Skinner & Smithers 1990).

Threats

The area requirements of leopards are large, therefore the relatively small protected areas in KwaZulu-Natal will never be able to support large populations. Potential for expansion of populations outside of protected areas is limited as leopards are generally not compatible with human settlement and livestock farming.

Human importance

Leopard skins or pieces of skin are highly sought-after for use in traditional medicine for making protective charms, and for use in ceremonial dress (Cunningham & Zondi 1991). A limited number of special permits may be issued for the hunting of leopards by paying clients. The quota for 1991 was five, but only one was shot. Livestock losses to leopards occur occasionally in KwaZulu-Natal.

THE CARNIVORES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 0-620-16629-0


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Unprotected outside of reserves in KwaZulu-Natal, and not listed in the SA Red Data Book nor any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

G. tigrina is the commonest, most widely distributed carnivore in KwaZulu-Natal. It has been regularly recorded in all bioclimatic regions, except Drier upland grassland where it is absent or rare. The overall distribution range has not changed and population status is stable. Museum specimens, collected between 1912 and 1977, originate from Cathedral Peak, Donnybrook, Elandslaagte, Harding, Highflats, Hillary, Hillcrest, Howick, Hluhluwe GR, Ingwavuma, Lowlands, Maphelana, Mkhuze GR, Mount Edgecombe, Ngoya, Ndumo GR, Oribi Gorge NR, Pietermaritzburg, Queen Elizabeth Park, Renishaw, Richmond, Royal Natal National Park, Umdoni Park, Umhlanga, Underberg, Vernon Crookes NR, and Weza State Forest. Recent specimens are from Bayzlee Beach, Durban, and St Lucia. Its presence has currently been recorded in the following protected areas : Bluff, Cape Vidal, Cathedral Peak, Cobham, Coleford, Dlinza Forest, Doreen Clark, Eastern Shores, Enseleni, Entumeni, False Bay, Garden Castle, Giant's Castle, Harold Johnson, Hluhluwe, Ithala, Kamberg, Karkloof, Kenneth Stainbank, Krantzkloof, Lake Eteza, Lotheni, Maphelana, Midmar, Mkhuze, Monk's Cowl, Moor Park, Mount Currie, Mpenjati, Oribi Gorge, Pongola Bush, Queen Elizabeth Park, Richards Bay, Royal Natal National Park, Sodwana Bay, Sodwana State Forest, Spioenkop, St Lucia, Umfolozi, Umlalazi, Umtamvuna, Umvoti Vlei, Vernon Crookes, Vryheid Hill and Weenen.

Living requirements

Large-spotted genets show a preference for well-wooded, moist areas (including alien plantations), fairly close to permanent water. Large trees are selected as resting places in preference to dense grass cover (Maddock 1988; Maddock & Perrin in press), and rock overhangs and caves are also used. Shelter is even taken in buildings. The most important items in both stomach contents (Rowe-Rowe 1978a) and in faecal analysis (Maddock 1988; Maddock & Perrin in press; Rowe-Rowe unpubl. data) were small mammals and insects. Fruits, birds, reptiles, frogs, myriapods, and spiders are also eaten. Home ranges at Vernon Crookes NR were 50 - 100 ha (Maddock 1988), and estimated density 4,4/km², which is greater than estimates of 0,5 - 1,5/km² for east Africa (Hendrichs 1972; Waser 1980).

Social organisation

Adult genets are solitary (Maddock 1988; Maddock & Perrin in press; Rowe-Rowe 1978a). It is not known whether large-spotted genets are territorial.

Population dynamics

Young are born mainly during spring and summer (Rowe-Rowe 1978a). Gestation is similar to that of G. genetta (70 - 77 days). Litters of up to three have been recorded. The eyes open at 10 days and canine teeth erupt at four weeks (Rowe-Rowe 1971). Age at weaning has not been established. Prey is first killed at 22 - 28 weeks. The deciduous canine teeth are shed after the permanent canines have erupted, just prior to asymptotic mass being reached at ca. 11 months. A growth curve is provided by Rowe-Rowe (1971). The sex ratio of trapped and shot animals was 1 : 1.

Threats

There are no known threats. Pringle (1977) believed that G. tigrina was becoming rarer outside of protected areas. Rowe-Rowe (1978a) did not support this opinion and rated status as stable and secure, as is the rating in this study.

Human importance

In traditional medicine pieces of genet skin are used as stick-fight charms, or to decorate hats, and parts of the body are used in treatment of eyes. Some people eat the flesh (Cunningham & Zondi 1991). Domestic poultry is often killed by genets in both rural and peri-urban areas. It is therefore regarded as a problem animal by those that suffer losses.

THE CARNIVORES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 0-620-16629-0

Legal status

Scheduled as "Protected game" in KwaZulu-Natal. Not listed in the SA Red Data Book nor any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Roughly 5000 kudu occur in 22 populations, mainly in the north-east, and in more isolated populations in central KwaZulu-Natal. They are present in eight protected areas, viz. Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park (2000), Mkhuze (500), Ithala (300), Eastern Shores (250), Sodwana State Forest, Spioenkop, Weenen (200), and Ndumo-Tembe. About 1600 occur on private properties. In former times kudu apparently occurred in wooded areas of low-lying and inland KwaZulu-Natal. Although du Plessis (1969) indicated former distribution throughout KwaZulu-Natal, his references contradict this, and kudu would not have been present in open grassland or montane areas. Howard & Marchant (1984) found that the distributional range on private land was larger than that reported 10 years earlier by Mentis (1974), and that 44 % of the farmers with kudu on their properties reported increasing numbers.

Living requirements

Kudu favour bushveld or woodland, on terrain which may be flat to fairly steep. In KwaZulu-Natal suitable habitat occurs in Coast lowlands in the north east, and the Bushveld bioclimatic regions up to an altitude of about 1000 m. There is also some suitable habitat in the bush-encroached portions of the Drier upland region, up to about 1300 m. The kudu is a selective browser which needs a year-round supply of leaves. Area requirements are large : generally about 1/35 ha (Allen-Rowlandson 1980), but may be 1/20 ha in more favourable habitat.

Social organisation

Males occur singly or in small male herds, or in the company of females and young. Kudu are not territorial, but a dominance hierarchy exists amongst breeding adult males (usually over 6 years old). Young males leave the herd at the age of about 3 years, when they are sexually mature. A dominance hierarchy also appears to exist among adult females (Allen-Rowlandson 1980). In KwaZulu-Natal, groups of up to 10 animals have been recorded.

Population dynamics

The adult male : female sex ratio in Zululand was found to be 1 : 1,5 (Mentis 1970), and appears to be around 1 : 2 in most unharvested populations. Breeding is seasonal, with most births occurring during December and January, after a gestation of 7 months (Allen-Rowlandson 1980). Age at first parturition may be 2 years, but is generally 3 years. Females can be expected to produce one calf per year, and have a potential lifespan of about 15 years. Calf survival is sensitive to rainfall. Allen-Rowlandson (1980) found it to be as high as 85 % during a good year, and only 5 % during a severe drought. Calves lie out for 2 to 3 months.

Threats

No threats to kudu populations have been identified in KwaZulu-Natal. As they are not easily contained by fences, populations have expanded

Human importance

Kudu are popular among hunters as meat or trophy animals. Roughly 200 are shot by both foreign and local hunters on game ranches, per year. On average 28 per year are shot on quota permits on farms : the mean having increased from about 10/year in the 1970s to 30-60/year in the 1980s. Kudu can be a problem in croplands, where they feed on various leaves, flowers, or fruits.

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Scheduled as "Specially protected" in KwaZulu-Natal, and not listed in the S A Red Data Book nor any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Klipspringer occur along the Drakensberg escarpment from Giant's Castle Game Reserve to Royal Natal National Park. In northern KwaZulu-Natal they occur in Ithala Game Reserve, five isolated populations on farms, Mkhuze Game Reserve, and Umfolozi Game Reserve, and were recently introduced to Weenen NR. The bioclimatic regions in which they occur are Highland, Montane, Moist upland, Drier upland, and Bushveld. No reliable information on the numbers on farms is available. The population in Royal Natal NP was estimated at 60 - 70 (Scotcher 1980). Current estimates for the rest of the Drakensberg are 60, Ithala 20 -30, Mkhuze 10, and Umfolozi 30 -40. Very little information is available on the past distribution of klipspringer in KwaZulu-Natal. Records quoted by du Plessis (1969) indicated that they occurred in the Drakensberg and the 'rocky parts of Zululand'. Howard & Marchant (1984) obtained information on the presence of klipspringer on 10 of 273 randomly selected properties, and its disappearance on five farms during the past 50 years.

Living requirements

In the Drakensberg klipspringer occur in dwarf scrub on basaltic ledges, usually at elevations above 2200 to 2500 m (Scotcher 1980, Rowe-Rowe 1982 b). In northern KwaZulu-Natal and Zululand they are confined to rocky outcrops, where there is suitable browse. Area requirements in the Drakensberg are 1/3 or 4 ha. As an area supports a pair plus at least one offspring per year, each klipspringer group needs at least 9 - 12 ha of suitable habitat.

Social organisation

Klipspringer occur in pairs or together with one recent offspring. Sometimes groups of three may consist of an adult male and two adult females (Scotcher 1980). Adult males defend territories which serve as the home range of the family group. Territory size in the Drakensberg is similar to that recorded in Ethiopian mountains where the rainfall is 1300 mm (Dunbar & Dunbar 1974). In drier areas the territories are likely to be larger (Norton 1980).

Population dynamics

The population sex ratio is 1 : 1 (Scotcher 1980). Age at first parturition is 18 - 24 months, after a gestation of 7 months (Mentis 1972). Calving interval is about 12 months, and potential lifespan is roughly 8 years. Young animals lie out for the first 2 - 3 months (Norton 1980).

Threats

Klipspringer numbers are low in KwaZulu-Natal, owing to limited suitable habitat. The chances of numbers increasing are very slim, and there is evidence that some klipspringer populations are depleted by poachers.

Human importance

Klipspringer are not hunted in KwaZulu-Natal and they do not cause any problems.

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Scheduled as "Ordinary game" in KwaZulu-Natal. Not listed in the S A Red Data Book, nor any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

The southernmost limit of impala distribution in KwaZulu-Natal was formerly Mkhuze Game Reserve (du Plessis 1969). Between 1936 and 1938 introductions were made to Hluhluwe and Umfolozi Game Reserves. Since 1960 impalas have been introduced to another 12 protected areas (Enseleni, False Bay, Harold Johnson, Ithala, Kenneth Stainbank, Moor Park, Queen Elizabeth Park, Spioenkop, St Lucia, Vernon Crookes, Vryheid Hill) as well as to numerous private properties in nine of Phillips's (1973) bioclimatic regions (Howard & Marchant 1984), and currently occur in over 50 separate populations. In the grassland bioclimatic regions (such as Mistbelt, and both Moist and Drier uplands) they occur mainly in bush-encroached areas, up to an altitude of 1400 m. The ancestral population occurred in sub-arid Bushveld. The total in protected areas is about 18 000. The largest populations are in Mkhuze (7000), Umfolozi (7000), Hluhluwe (1700), and Ithala (2000).

Living requirements

Ideal habitat is woodland or bush which is not too dense, on flat to gently undulating terrain, within about 2 km of water. In KwaZulu-Natal the impala is primarily a short-grass grazer (about 80 % of the diet), and to a lesser extent a browser (Marchant 1988). In ideal habitat they occur at 1/4 ha (Marchant 1988). If allowed to exceed this density, impalas can damage the environment by site-selective grazing.

Social organisation

Certain adult males are territorial. Females occur either in harem herds, or nursery herds. Sub-adult males and non-territorial adult males form bachelor herds (Marchant 1988). Herd sizes are usually influenced by population size, density, and the size of the area that the animals occupy. In Mkhuze Game Reserve, Vincent (1979) reported herds of 9 to 29. Mean territory size was 6,6 ha.

Population dynamics

In populations in which selective shooting has not been practised, the adult sex ratio is 1 male : 1,4 females (Mentis 1972). On private land farmers are advised to maintain a sex ratio 1 male : 2 or 3 females for maximum productivity (Marchant 1988). Breeding is seasonal, with the rut taking place during April and May, and lambing reaching a peak during the first half of December (Vincent 1972). Age at first parturition is 2 years, following a gestation of almost 7 months (Mentis 1972). The potential lifespan is about 12 years (Mentis 1972).

Threats

There are no threats to impalas in KwaZulu-Natal.

Human importance

Impalas are important as farm game and ranching animals. On farms which have suitable impala habitat, they are generally the most abundant species, and provide much of the income on commercial enterprises. It is estimated that several thousand are harvested annually. If not properly managed, and over-population results, impalas can be responsible for damage to the veld. (See "Living requirements", above.)

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2

Legal status

Scheduled as "Ordinary game" in KwaZulu-Natal, and not listed in the S A Red Data Book nor CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Grey duikers occur throughout KwaZulu-Natal where there is sufficient woody vegetation for cover and food. They have been recorded up to 2200 m above sea level in the Drakensberg (Rowe-Rowe 1982 b). On private land grey duikers were recorded on 82 % of the properties surveyed (n = 273), where numbers were reported to be stable on 61 %, increasing on 33 %, and declining on 6 % (Howard & Marchant 1984). Their presence has been recorded in 33 KZNNCS protected areas: Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park from Garden Castle to Cathedral Peak, and at Coleford, Eastern Shores, Enseleni, Entumeni Forest, Harold Johnson, Himeville, Hluhluwe, Ithala, Kamberg, Kenneth Stainbank, Krantzkloof, Maphelana, Midmar, Mkhuze Moor Park, Mount Currie, Oribi Gorge, Queen Elizabeth Park, Royal Natal NP, Sodwana Bay, Sodwana State Forest, Spioenkop, St Lucia, Umtamvuna, Umvoti Vlei, Vernon Crookes, Vryheid, and Weenen; and they possibly occur in another five. The overall distribution range has not changed (du Plessis 1969), except that grey duikers have disappeared from built-up areas.

Living requirements

The most important living requirement is woody vegetation which provides cover and food. The grey duiker is a browser which eats leaves of dicotyledonous plants, young stems, fruits, and flowers, as well as fungi (Allen-Rowlandson 1986). The proportions eaten differ seasonally. Allen-Rowlandson (1986) found that two of KwaZulu-Natal's alien plant invaders, viz bugweed Solanum mauritianum and bramble Rubus spp., are favoured food plants. In ideal habitat at Weza, Allen-Rowlandson (1986) recorded a mean grey duiker density of 1/17 ha. Area requirements are estimated at 1/20 to 1/50 ha, depending on habitat quality.

Social organisation

Both adult males and females are territorial. Single animals are most commonly seen (87 %), and groups of two usually consist of a female and her young, or occasionally, a female and an adult male (Allen-Rowlandson 1984).

Population dynamics

In areas where selective hunting does not take place the sex ratio is 1 : 1 (Allen-Rowlandson 1986). Allen-Rowlandson (1986) also established that the grey duiker is a non-seasonal breeder, with females having their first young at 18 - 20 months, and producing one young per year. The calving interval can be as brief as 9 months, gestation is not known (anything from 4,5 - 7 months), and potential lifespan is 8 - 11 years (Mentis 1972).

Threats

There are no known threats to current populations.

Human importance

Grey duikers are fairly popular as small game, mainly to local hunters. Damage to gardens and commercial timber seedlings occurs regularly, but not on a large scale.

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2

Legal status

Scheduled as "Protected game" in KwaZulu-Natal. Not listed in the SA Red Data Book and not on any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Grey rhebuck currently occur in mountainous terrain, mainly along the western boundary of KwaZulu-Natal, and at a few central localities, in the Highland and Montane bioclimatic regions. Altogether there are about 30 separate populations. The largest population is in the Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park extending from Royal Natal National Park to Bushman's Nek, linking up with East Griqualand. Most of the animals in this population fall within contiguous KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Service protected areas which constitute this 240 000 ha mountain park, viz Royal Natal, Cathedral Peak, Monk's Cowl, Giant's Castle, Highmoor, Kamberg, Lotheni, Vergelegen, Mkomazi, Cobham, and Garden Castle. Other protected areas in which they occur are Coleford, and Mount Currie. It is estimated that the Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park (Royal Natal to Garden Castle) supports 2000 to 3000 animals. There are about 200 mainly on private land in East Griqualand, and another 500 to 700 in other populations on private land. The total number in the province is, therefore, possibly 3000 to 4000. The past distribution of the grey rhebuck is likely to have been slightly more extensive than at present, but not as wide as indicated by du Plessis (1969) : almost the whole of KwaZulu-Natal.

Living requirements

Grassland, on hills and mountains at high altitudes, 1900 to 3300 m above sea level, is typical habitat in KwaZulu-Natal. They occur on slopes of up to 35 degrees , but favour plateaux and slopes of 20 degrees and less. Warmer, north-facing slopes are preferred (Rowe-Rowe 1983). Grey rhebuck feed very selectively, almost entirely on forbs (Esser 1973, Ferreira & Bigalke1987). They favour short, burnt veld for feeding and long grass for cover (Rowe-Rowe 1982 a). Ecological densities in the Drakensberg range from 1/23 ha to 1/57 ha (Oliver, Short & Hanks 1978, Rowe-Rowe & Scotcher 1986).

Social organisation

Grey rhebuck occur either as single males, or in small groups of up to 10 animals, comprising one adult male, adult females, and young (Oliver et al. 1978, Rowe-Rowe 1982 b). Single adult males account for about 25 % of all groups (Oliver et al. 1978, Rowe-Rowe 1982 b). Herd males are territorial (Esser 1973), and occupy home ranges (= territories?) of 42 to 135 ha (average about 70 ha) in the Drakensberg (Oliver et al. 1978, Rowe-Rowe 1972 b, Southgate 1979). Yearling males leave the herd or may be evicted just prior to the onset of calving in November (Rowe-Rowe 1972 b).

Population dynamics

Male : female adult sex ratios range from 1 : 1,5 to 1 : 1,9 at three different localities in the Drakensberg (Oliver et al. 1978, Rowe-Rowe 1982 b, Southgate 1979). Reproduction is seasonal : mating takes place from March to May and most young are born between November and January (Oliver et al. 1978, Rowe-Rowe 1982 b, Southgate 1979). Gestation is about 8,5 months (Mentis 1972). Age at first parturition and potential lifespan are not known. Juveniles (less than 1 year old) comprise 22 % of the population (Rowe-Rowe 1982 b, Southgate 1979). Rowe-Rowe (1982 b) recorded 47 young (under a year old) per 100 females. In the Drakensberg most deaths have been recorded during August to October, following the severe winter period when food availability and quality drop to critical levels (Rowe-Rowe & Scotcher 1986).

Threats

Potential expansion of grey rhebuck populations is limited, owing to their specific habitat requirements. On some private properties, and the periphery of some protected areas, grey rhebuck are poached, or harassed and killed by uncontrolled dogs.

Human importance

The grey rhebuck is not much sought after by hunters. On average four per year have been legally harvested on quota permits, mainly as trophy animals. No problems have been reported.

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2

Legal status

Categorised as 'Specially protected game' in KwaZulu-Natal. Not listed in the S A Red Data Book nor on CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Du Plessis (1969) stated that giraffe formerly occurred in north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal. Goodman & Tomkinson (1987) provided evidence to the contrary, indicating that giraffe did not occur south of the Komati River prior to their introduction to KwaZulu-Natal in 1948. The 1200 giraffe currently in protected areas all originate from 27 animals from Transvaal, introduced to Hluhluwe and Mkhuze Game Reserves between 1948 and 1965, and another 22, also from Transvaal, between 1978 and 1980. Protected areas in which they occur are Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park (450), Mkhuze (200), Ithala (170), Spioenkop (35), Weenen (40), Ndumo (40), Amatigulu (14), Enseleni (7) and Tembe.

Living requirements

Woodland on flat to gently undulating terrain is the preferred habitat. Giraffe are browsers. A major limiting factor is a year-round supply of green trees, or sufficient Acacia pods when green leaves are in short supply. Giraffe can achieve densities of 1/50 ha, but should be lower (about 1/300 ha) to prevent overuse of food plants (P.S. Goodman, NPB, in litt.).

Social organisation

Adult males are generally solitary, but there is no evidence of territoriality. Groups (4 - 10 animals) usually consist of females and young, or separate herds of young bachelor males (Skinner & Smithers 1990). Home ranges are large : 2000 - 3000 ha in KwaZulu-Natal's reserves.

Population dynamics

The sex ratio is roughly 1 : 1. Breeding is not seasonal, with births having been recorded throughout the year in KwaZulu-Natal (Rowe-Rowe 1972 a). The gestation period is 15 months, age at first parturition 6 years, and the calving interval about 20 months. Females have a potential lifespan of 20 years (Mentis 1972). The rate of increase in the introduced Mkhuze GR population has been 18 % per annum, in the absence of predation (Goodman, in litt.).

Threats

The established populations in KwaZulu-Natal are not threatened. Overall population growth is limited by the relatively small reserves in which they occur.

Human importance

Most people value giraffe for their aesthetic appeal. Some have been released on game ranches and farms for this reason, but few introductions have been successful. There have been no problems associated with Giraffe.

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2

Legal status

Distribution and status

Living requirements

Social organisation

Population dynamics

Threats

Human importance

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Scheduled as protected game in KwaZulu-Natal. Listed as 'Out of danger' in the S A Red Data Book, but appears on Appendix I of CITES

Distribution and status

Only four populations occur in protected areas in KwaZulu-Natal. In Tembe Elephant Reserve there are about 120 to 150 animals, naturally occurring. The population of ca 300 in the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park has built up from animals introduced from the Kruger National Park, and 30 young elephants from the same source were introduced to Ithala Game Reserve and these now number 57. Two groups of 12 animals were introduced to Mkhuze Game Reserve from the Kruger National Park, the second of which consisted of a family group containing adult females. There are some 160 elephants on private land in the province. Elephants formerly (nineteenth century) occurred along the KwaZulu-Natal coast from Pondoland in the south to the north-east (Tongaland), extending inland to at least as far as Pietermaritzburg and Karkloof in the south, and perhaps further west in the north (Literature survey by B. Poggenpoel, NPB unpubl. records). By 1875 almost all elephants in KwaZulu-Natal had been shot.

Living requirements

The major limiting factors for elephants are the availability of palatable grasses and browse, drinking water, shade, and the size of the area (P.M. Brooks, NPB, in litt.) In the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park favoured vegetation types are closed woodland and open woodland. The diet in this park includes more grass than browse, and of the browse plants, Acacia spp. are most commonly eaten (B. Page, Univ. of Natal, pers. comm.). Brooks (in litt.) has estimated that area requirements are about 200 ha per animal.

Social organisation

The social organisation is matriarchal. Elephants occur in family groups of up to about 10, consisting of a lead female, other females, and their offspring. Family groups unite to form herds, led by a number of lead females. Adult males join the herds when the females are in oestrus. Young males reach sexual maturity at about 10 years, then leave the family group, but only compete for females at about 20 years (Smithers 1986).

Population dynamics

Breeding is not seasonal. A single calf (rarely twins) is born after a gestation of 22 months. Females become sexually mature at about 11 years, have a calving interval of 5 to 9 years, and remain fertile until the age of ca 60 (Mentis 1972). The population sex ratio is 1 : 1.

Threats

In KwaZulu-Natal the only four populations that occur within protected areas may be regarded as safe. The reserves are, however, small, placing limitations on population expansion. As elephants are not compatible with rural human activity, scope for distributional expansion in Natal is limited.

Human importance

In KwaZulu-Natal elephants are not hunted for meat or ivory, and as they are contained by adequate fences they do not cause problems.

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Scheduled as "Protected game" in KwaZulu-Natal. Not listed in the S A Red Data Book nor any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Reedbuck formerly occurred throughout KwaZulu-Natal where there was suitable habitat (du Plessis 1969, NPB unpubl. records). At present reedbuck remain widely distributed, but occur mainly in southern, south-western, and north-east KwaZulu-Natal. Howard & Marchant (1984) recorded reedbuck on farmland from 10 of Natal's 11 bioclimatic regions, and noted increases in all but one region, Coast lowlands, south of St Lucia, where they are declining owing to loss of habitat. Populations occur naturally, or have been re-established, in 33 protected areas: Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park (from Garden Castle to Cathedral Peak), Chelmsford, Coleford, Eastern Shores, Enseleni, False Bay, Himeville, Hluhluwe, Ithala, Kenneth Stainbank, Maphelana, Midmar, Mkhuze, Mount Currie, Queen Elizabeth Park, Sodwana Bay, Spioenkop, St Lucia, Umfolozi, Umgeni Vlei, Umtamvuna, Umvoti Vlei, Vernon Crookes, Vryheid Hill, and Weenen. The largest concentrations are at Lake St Lucia where there are about 7000 on the Eastern Shores and 1100 on the Western Shores. The population which occurs in the Drakensberg protected areas, from Bushmansnek to Cathedral Peak, and the adjoining farms, is considered genetically different from that in north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal (Howard 1983).

Living requirements

The bioclimatic regions in which most reedbuck occur are Coast lowlands around Lake St Lucia, Mistbelt, and Highland. Rainfall is high in these regions: 1000 - 1500 mm/annum. The reedbuck is a grazer, favouring green, nutritious grasses, and is dependent on water. On the Eastern Shores of Lake St Lucia Venter (1979) identified the favoured feeding areas as recently burnt, open shrubland and burnt hygrophilous grassland. Preferred cover was dense, low woody vegetation. In the Highland region of south-western KwaZulu-Natal, Howard (1986) found that vleis and natural grassveld on broken, hilly terrain, were occupied during summer. During winter the reedbucks switched to agricultural land and adjacent cover. Howard (1986) also demonstrated the importance to reedbuck of low, woody cover. In the Drakensberg reedbuck occur up to elevations of 1800 to 2000 m (Rowe-Rowe 1982 b). At Eastern Shores densities of one reedbuck/3 to 4 ha were recorded (Venter 1979), and on the mixed farms of the Highland region Howard (1983) estimated 1/13 ha, and 1/7 ha on a farm which had a higher proportion of frost-resistant winter pastures and cover. Howard (1983) estimated that reedbuck on farms in the highland and midland regions of KwaZulu-Natal generally occur at densitites of between 1/20 and 1/33 ha.

Social organisation

Reedbuck occur singly, or in small groups (most frequently of two or three), and less frequently in unstable groups of up to about 10. Howard (1983) and Venter (1979) found similar social grouping : solitary adult males 13 - 19 %, single adult females 14 %, single sub-adults 9 %, adult pairs 5 - 7 %, and groups of one or more females plus offspring 60 %. Adults have overlapping home ranges. At St Lucia mean home range sizes were 5 ha for males and 6 ha for females (Venter 1979), and in the highland study area they were 74 ha and 123 ha respectively (Howard 1983). Reedbuck in KwaZulu-Natal have not been found to be strictly territorial, as was the case in the Kruger National Park (Jungius 1971). Venter (1979) did not recognise territoriality at St Lucia, but noted a social hierarchy in which dominant males competed with each other to serve females in oestrus. In the Highland region Howard (1983) recognised an intermediate type of social organisation. Males displayed signs of territoriality during the rut:- The dominant males occupied cover closest to the food source. Females gave birth in this cover, returned to the lying-out calf for three or four months, and when they came into oestrus, were served by the dominant (= territorial) male from that cover patch.

Population dynamics

Both Venter (1979) and Howard (1983) reported a 1 : 1 sex ratio at birth. Amongst adults Venter (1979) recorded a male : female ratio of 1 : 1,4 and Howard (1983) observed a 1 : 1,1 ratio. At St Lucia no seasonality in reproduction was observed (Venter 1979). Although Howard (1983) noted births throughout the year in highland KwaZulu-Natal, he recognised a summer peak during December and January. Gestation has been established at 7,75 months (Mentis 1972). At St Lucia age at first parturition was 23 to 35 months and 20 to 24 months in the Highland region (Venter 1979, Howard 1983). Males reach puberty at 9 months, but do not take part in the rut until older. The mean lifespan of males was 4 years and that of females 5 years (Howard 1983). Both Venter (1979) and Howard (1983) found that very few reedbuck live beyond the age of 10 years. There were no signs of reproductive senescence in either males or females (Howard 1983). Venter (1979) estimated infant mortality to be 52 %. Both Venter (1979) and Howard (1983) found that juveniles (less than 1 year old) comprised 19 % of the population. A growing population can be expected to increase at about 20 % per annum (Venter 1979).

Threats

No threats to the large populations in protected areas, nor those on private land have been identified. Poaching and harassment by dogs have been identified as threats to small, recently established populations.

Human importance

Reedbuck are highly regarded as meat and trophy animals by hunters, and the demand for live animals is high. Some farmers that grow winter pastures for dairy cattle express concern regarding the grazing impact by reedbuck. Between 1974 and 1991 the average number shot per year on quota permits, either as problem animals or harvested surpluses on farms, was 421.

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2

Legal status

Unprotected outside of reserves in KwaZulu-Natal, listed as "Rare" in the SA Red Data Book, and not on any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

Civets are very rare in KwaZulu-Natal, reaching the southernmost limit of their distribution in the extreme north-east of the province. Status and distribution appear to be similar to earlier assessments (Pringle 1977; Rowe-Rowe 1978a). It was not recorded in any protected areas. There are no specimens in museums and no reliable records of historic distribution have been found. Genets (Genetta spp.) have often been, and still are, incorrectly referred to by some as civets or civet cats.

Living requirements

Suitable habitat is riverine vegetation where there are plenty of fruit-bearing trees and shrubs (Rautenbach 1982). An additional requirement appears to be dense cover (Smithers 1986). Density was estimated at ∠ 1/10 km² in Serengeti National Park (Hendrichs 1972; Waser 1980). In a study done in northern Transvaal it was estimated that each civet required 4 to 6 km of suitable riverine vegetation (R. Randall, National Parks Board, pers. comm.). Insects and wild fruits are the most important items in the diet, supplemented by other small animals, e.g. mice, reptiles, birds, amphibians, and millipedes (Bothma 1971; Skinner & Smithers 1990).

Social organisation

Civets are generally solitary. No other details are known.

Population dynamics

Litters of two to four young are born during spring or summer (Skinner & Smithers 1990).

Threats

No threats have been identified. A few animals are trapped for meat (?) and skins. The civet is listed in the SA Red Data Book (Smithers 1986) as numbers are declining in the northern Transvaal, where coyote getters and poison baits are set for jackals. It has been estimated that the ratio of civets : jackals killed is 6 : 1.

Human importance

There are no known uses or problems in KwaZulu-Natal.

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Unprotected outside of reserves in KwaZulu-Natal, not listed in the SA Red Data Book, and listed on Appendix II of CITES.

Distribution and status

Clawless otters have been recorded mainly from the Montane, Highland, Moist upland grassland, and Mistbelt bioclimatic regions, at a number of localities in Coast lowlands; and very rare in, or absent from, the more arid regions of Bushveld and Drier upland grassland. The overall distributional range is similar to that reported by Rowe-Rowe (1978a) and more extensive than the range given by Pringle (1977). Rowe-Rowe (1990a), however, believed that numbers were declining in some areas. The only museum specimen originates from Dargle (1975). Additional material records are listed in Rowe-Rowe (1978a). Although clawless otters have been reported from 40 KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Service protected areas, many of these areas contain very little otter habitat, or do not support otters permanently. For example, signs of clawless otters were recorded only twice during a year of monitoring 200 m of stream on the boundary of Queen Elizabeth Park. The largest protected area in which they occur is the Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park extending from Garden Castle northwards to Royal Natal. Other protected areas in which clawless otters have been reported are Blinkwater, Chelmsford, Coleford, Eastern Shores, Enseleni, Entumeni Forest, Harold Johnson, Himeville, Ithala, Incandu, Karkloof, Lake Eteza, Midmar, Mount Currie, Mpenjati, Oribi Gorge, Pongola Bush, Richards Bay, Royal Natal , Soada Forest, Spioenkop, St Lucia, The Swamp, Umfolozi, Umlalazi, Umtamvuna, Umvoti Vlei, Vernon Crookes, Wagendrift, and Weenen. Former (1873-1924) distribution records refer mainly to their occurrence in the KwaZulu-Natal midlands and Drakensberg (NPBunpubl. records). FitzSimons (1919) rated clawless otters as common in KwaZulu-Natal, occurring along the banks of the larger rivers and small streams. Oscillations in their occurrence in the environs at Lake St Lucia have been related to salinity levels in the lake and the availability of fresh water (Kröger & Forrest 1978).

Living requirements

The primary living requirement in freshwater habitats is unpolluted, unsilted water which contains sufficient numbers of the most important food source (freshwater crabs). Dense riparian vegetation (long grass, reeds, bushes) is essential to provide cover for resting places and holts (Rowe-Rowe 1992), as are other suitable shelters such as holes or overhanging rocks. Favoured freshwater habitats in KwaZulu-Natal are the rivers and streams in the midland and highland, high-rainfall areas. Impoundments, both large and small, appear to be secondary habitat. The diet in freshwater habitats consists of 60 - 70 % crabs, ca 20 % frogs, and 3 - 8 % fish (Rowe-Rowe 1977a, 1978a, 1985). Diet has not been determined at coastal localities in KwaZulu-Natal, but on the southern Cape coast crustaceans, molluscs, and fish are eaten (van der Zee 1981, Verwoerd 1987). Density on the Cape coast was estimated at 1 adult/2 km of coast, and home ranges were 9 to 20 km long (Arden-Clarke 1986, Verwoerd 1987). Area requirements in freshwater habitats have not been determined. Indications are that density may be lower (1 adult/3-4 km of stream), and home ranges larger, than at coastal localities (Rowe-Rowe 1992).

Social organisation

n freshwater habitats in KwaZulu-Natal clawless otters have been recorded in family groups comprising an adult pair and their young, or singly, or in twos (Rowe-Rowe 1978a). On the Cape coast, Arden-Clarke (1986) found that home ranges of certain adult males overlapped and suggested that a clan system of territoriality may exist.

Population dynamics

Litters usually consist of two or three young, born after a gestation of 60 - 64 days (Rowe-Rowe 1975b, 1978a). Parturition appears to take place at the end of winter or early spring in the Highland and Montane regions. The young are weaned at about 8 weeks (Verwoerd 1987). No information is available on age at first parturition. In captivity a lifespan of 11 years has been recorded, but is probably lower in the wild.

Threats

The greatest threat to African otters has been identified as the rapidly increasing human population (Rowe-Rowe 1990a). This leads to adverse alteration of freshwater habitats and riparian vegetation, or loss of habitat, following increased agricultural activity, commercial afforestation, unsound agricultural practices, or overgrazing in rural areas. In urban areas expansion and industrialisation have been responsible for both loss of habitat and pollution of streams and rivers, as too has acid pollution from coal mining. Some otters are hunted and killed opportunistically.

Human importance

There is a demand for otter products in traditional medicine (Cunningham & Zondi 1991). Otters are capable of doing considerable damage if they enter fish hatcheries, and domestic ducks and geese are taken seasonally. Damage prevention, using electric fencing at hatcheries, or temporary enclosures for poultry, is recommended (Rowe-Rowe 1985). Anglers often incorrectly believe that clawless otters have a detrimental effect on sportfishing (Rowe-Rowe 1977a, 1978a, 1985), and they are sometimes falsely blamed for killing sheep or lambs, but they do not eat mammals (Rowe-Rowe)

THE CARNIVORES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 0-620-16629-0

Legal status

Unprotected wildlife outside of game and nature reserves (Ordinance 15 of 1974), and a proclaimed problem animal throughout the rest of KwaZulu-Natal (Ordinance 14 of 1978); not listed in the SA Red Data Book and on Appendix II of CITES.

Distribution and status

The caracal occurs mainly in south-western KwaZulu-Natal in the Montane, Highland, Moist upland, and Mistbelt bioclimatic regions, and is more sparsely distributed throughout the rest of western KwaZulu-Natal in Highland, Moist upland, and Drier upland grasslands. There has been a marked increase in distributional range since last described by Pringle (1977) and Rowe-Rowe (1978a). Distribution was then limited to a much smaller area in south-western KwaZulu-Natal, and isolated records were available from Ngomi Forest and Rietvlei near Greytown. There is very little information on former distribution, other than that caracals have always been present in East Griqualand (formerly part of the Cape Province), and one was seen about 4 km north-west of Underberg in 1957 (C.W. Wright, NPB, pers. comm.). Museum specimens are from Bulwer, Giant's Castle GR, and Underberg. Protected areas in which caracals have recently been recorded are those in the Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park from Garden Castle to Royal Natal, Blinkwater, Incandu, Ithala, Karkloof, Midmar, Moor Park, Mount Currie, Oribi Gorge, Queen Elizabeth Park, Royal Natal National Park, Spioenkop, Vernon Crookes, and Vryheid. One has been seen in Mkhuze GR during 1989.

Living requirements

In KwaZulu-Natal caracal have been recorded in grassland and forest, including commercial forests (Pinus and Eucalyptus spp.). Where they occur in grassland, they appear to favour areas with cover in the form of rocks or woody vegetation, e.g. Protea woodland, streambank scrub. Patches of dense vegetation or rock crevices are needed as dens in which young can be sheltered. Caracals feed mainly on mammals and some birds (Stuart & Hickman 1991). Where dassies are abundant they constitute the principal food (Grobler 1986), otherwise most-frequently eaten mammals are antelopes, rodents, hares, and on farms, small livestock (Stuart 1982). In KwaZulu-Natal records of antelope killed have been mountain reedbuck, grey rhebuck, grey duiker, and bushbuck. It is estimated that area requirements in the grassland habitats of KwaZulu-Natal would need to be large. In east Africa estimated density was ∠ 1 caracal/1000 ha (Hendrichs 1972).

Social organisation

Caracals are solitary. Adults appear to remain together for a short period only when breeding, and sometimes an adult female with young is seen. Adult males are believed to be territorial, and there is a suggestion that an adult breeding female may defend a core area within the home range which may overlap that of other females (Stuart 1982). Home ranges of adults in the south-west Cape Province were ca 1200 - 2700 ha, and a sub-adult home range of 4800 ha was measured (Stuart 1982).

Population dynamics

Breeding does not appear to be seasonal, although most births have been recorded during summer (Grobler 1986; Stuart 1982). Litters of up to four young are born after a gestation of ca 80 days. The eyes open at 6 - 10 days, weaning takes place at 15 - 20 weeks, and the young are capable of making their first kills at 12 - 16 weeks. Asymptotic mass is reached at about 11 months (Stuart 1982). The sex ratio at birth and among young caracal is 1 : 1, but in adults trapped on farms males predominate1,3 : 1) : possibly owing to behavioral differences in the sexes (Stuart 1982)

Threats

None identified.

Human importance

There are no known uses. In an opinion survey among sheep farmers respondents estimated that 3 % of the annual lamb crop was killed by predators (Lawson 1989). The caracal was ranked third as the culprit responsible for losses, after black-backed jackals and domestic dogs. Methods used to attempt to eliminate problem caracals are mainly trapping (cage traps) and hunting using trained hounds.

THE CARNIVORES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 0-620-16629-0


CARACAL SPOOR

Legal status

Unprotected outside of reserves in KwaZulu-Natal, and not listed in the SA Red Data Book nor any CITES appendices.

Distribution and status

The Cape fox occurs mainly in the Drier upland grassland bioclimatic region (rainfall 720 - 760 mm/annum). Current distributional range is similar to that reported by Rowe-Rowe (1978a), which was more extensive than that suggested by Pringle (1977), who believed that there was no permanent population in KwaZulu-Natal, This appears to be erroneous. Status was subjectively rated as rare in KwaZulu-Natal (Rowe-Rowe 1978a). No information was found on former (nineteenth century) distribution, which was probably similar to present distribution, owing to limited semi-arid, open habitat. Earlier museum specimens originate from Ladysmith (1930), Dundee (1971), and recently from Chelmsford NR, Newcastle, and near Kamberg (1985-86). Protected areas in which the Cape fox has been recorded are Chelmsford, Moor Park, Spioenkop, and Vryheid Hill.

Living requirements

In KwaZulu-Natal the characteristics of the areas in which Cape foxes have been recorded are flat to gently undulating terrain, in open grassland or lightly wooded (Acacia sieberana) grassland, between 1000 and 1500 m above sea level, where rainfall is roughly 720 - 760 mm/annum. In the Free State, Lynch (1983) found that the Cape fox was most abundant in open habitats which received ∠ 500 mm of rain/annum, and it was recorded much less frequently in those with an annual rainfall of 600 - 800 mm. Area requirements in KwaZulu-Natal are not known. In the Free State foraging ranges of 100 to 460 ha were recorded (Bester 1982), where densities of 1,2 - 2,9/100 ha were recorded, i.e. area requirements of 34 - 83 ha/fox. The diet comprises mainly small rodents and insects (Bothma 1966, 1971). In sheep-farming areas some very young (∠ 4 day-old) lambs are killed (Bester 1982).

Social organisation

Mated adults form pairs, but each fox forages separately (Bester 1982). The adult female remains with newborn young in an excavated or adapted burrow, and is provisioned by the adult male (Skinner & Smithers 1990). Pups which survive beyond weaning begin to forage with the female at about 16 weeks, and become independent of her at about 21 weeks (Bester 1982). Bester (1982) found that foraging ranges (100 - 460 ha) of pairs overlapped, and suggested that if mated pairs are territorial, the territory probably occupies only a small area around the den.

Population dynamics

Parturition has been recorded between August and October in the Free State, where litters of up to six (mainly three) are born after a gestation of about 50 days (Bester 1982). Pup-survival rate, lactation period, and longevity are not known.

Threats

Most Cape foxes in KwaZulu-Natal occur on private land. On some properties they are regarded as a threat to sheep farming, and are poisoned, trapped, killed by foxhounds, or shot.

Human importance

Where dense populations of Cape foxes occur (e.g. parts of Free State) they can be responsible for killing up to 4,5 % of newborn sheep lambs (Bester 1982). Stuart (1981) found that where they are not abundant on sheep farms in parts of the Cape Province, damage was negligible. No significant depredations by Cape foxes on lambs have been reported in KwaZulu-Natal.

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
THE CARNIVORES OF NATAL
ISBN 0-620-16629-0

Legal status

Unprotected outside of reserves in KwaZulu-Natal, listed as "Rare" in the SA Red Data Book, and on Appendix I of CITES.

Distribution and status

Brown hyaenas have been recorded irregularly in the Drier upland and Highland bioclimatic regions of north-western KwaZulu-Natal, possibly occasional vagrants (Meester et al. 1986). FitzSimons (1919) stated that they were unknown in KwaZulu-Natal. Roberts (1951) mentioned that brown hyaenas were "surviving in the game reserves of Zululand", but this distribution was never confirmed. Between 1977 and 1983 brown hyaenas were introduced to Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park (4), Eastern Shores (7), and Ithala (9). Recent sightings have been reported from Ithala, Sodwana State Forest, Cape Vidal, and Eastern Shores, but none have been seen in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi since 1982.

Living requirements

Elsewhere in South Africa brown hyaenas occur in the drier parts of the southern savanna and in the south-west arid zone, where there is cover to provide shade during the day (Mills 1990; Smithers 1986). Habitats in KwaZulu-Natal are generally unsuitable, or only marginally suitable. The diet consists mainly of medium-sized mammals, about the size of a springhare (Mills 1990).

Social organisation

Clans consisting of up to 10, usually four, adult females are formed. There is no dominance hierarchy and all females take part in the defence of a territory : usually about 300 km². The clan females are served by nomadic adult males which make up about a third of the population. Adults usually forage alone (Mills 1990).

Population dynamics

Litters of up to four young are born aseasonally after a gestation of 90 days. The young are suckled for 9 - 12 months and start to forage alone after about 15 months. Inter-litter interval is ca 21 months. The population sex ratio is 1 : 1 (Mills 1990).

Threats

None identified in KwaZulu-Natal.

Human importance

Cunningham & Zondi (1991) listed the brown hyaena as an animal used in traditional medicine. Incidents of predation on sheep and calves have been reported from the Dundee, Estcourt, and Utrecht districts.

THE CARNIVORES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 0-620-16629-0


BROWN HYAENA SPOOR

Legal status

Distribution and status

Living requirements

Social organisation

Population dynamics

Threats

Human importance

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Distribution and status

Living requirements

Social organisation

Population dynamics

Threats

Human importance

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Distribution and status

Living requirements

Social organisation

Population dynamics

Threats

Human importance

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Distribution and status

Living requirements

Social organisation

Population dynamics

Threats

Human importance

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR

Legal status

Distribution and status

Living requirements

Social organisation

Population dynamics

Threats

Human importance

THE UNGULATES OF NATAL
D T ROWE-ROWE
ISBN 1-874965-07-2


WATERBUCK SPOOR